Humanity faces the looming challenge of feeding more people, with less labour and resources. Early adoption of biological and physical technologies has allowed agriculturalists to stay a step ahead of this challenge. This book provides a glimpse of what is possible and encourages engineers and agriculturalists to explore how radio-frequency and microwave systems might further enhance the agricultural industry.

• Contents
• Preface
• Introduction
• 2 Some Brief Examples of Technical Innovation in Agricultural Industries
• 2.1 Machines
• 2.2 Early Innovations in Agriculture
• 2.3 Transportation Technologies
• 2.4 The Tractor
• 2.5 The Green Revolution
• 2.6 High Resolution Production Systems
• 2.7 Spatial Data
• 2.8 Temporal Data
• 2.9 Conclusions
• References
• 3 A Brief Overview of Radio Frequency and Microwave Applications in Agriculture
• 3.1 Heating Applications
• 3.1.1 Crop Drying
• 3.1.2 Quarantine
• 3.1.3 Effect of Microwave Heating on Seeds and Plants
• 3.1.4 Microwave Treatment of Animal Fodder
• 3.1.5 Microwave Assisted Extraction
• 3.1.6 Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis and Bio-fuel Extraction
• 3.2 Sensor Applications
• 3.2.1 Assessment of Wood
• 3.2.2 Radar Systems
• 3.3 Communication Systems
• 3.4 Conclusion
• References
• 4 Microwaves and their Interactions with Materials
• 4.1 Electric and Magnetic Field Vectors
• 4.2 Maxwell’s Equations for Electro-magnetism
• 4.3 Magnetic Vector Potential
• 4.4 Continuity
• 4.5 Conservation of Electromagnetic Energy
• 4.6 Boundary Conditions
• 4.7 Wave Impedance
• 4.8 Reflection and Transmission at an Interface
• 4.9 Electromagnetic Behaviour of Materials
• 4.10 Conclusions
• References
• 5 Section Introduction
• References
• 6 Techniques for Measuring Dielectric Properties
• 6.1 Dielectric Properties
• 6.2 Polarization
• 6.2.1 DIPOLAR POLARIZATION
• 6.2.2 IONIC POLARIZATION
• 6.2.3 ELECTRONIC AND ATOMIC POLARIZATION
• 6.2.4 INTERFACIAL OR SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION
• 6.2.5 DIELECTRIC LOSS
• 6.2.6 RELAXATION TIME
• 6.3 Cole-Cole diagram
• 6.3.1 Bode’ plots and Nyquist Plots
• 6.4 Microwave Measurement Methods
• 6.4.1 Transmission/Reflection Line Method
• 6.4.2 Resonant Technique
• 6.4.3 Dielectric Resonator
• 6.4.4 Dielectric Post Resonato
• 6.4.5 Whispering Gallery Mode Resonator
• 6.4.6 Open-ended co-axial probe method
• 6.4.7 Dielectric Probe (Coaxial probe)
• 6.4.8 Free Space Method
• 6.4.9 Antenna
• 6.4.10 Near-field Microwave Probe
• 6.4.11 Reentrant Cavity
• 6.4.12 Fabry-Perot Resonator
• 6.5 Conclusions
• References
• 7 Dielectric Properties of Organic Materials
• 7.1 Frequency Dependency of Dielectric Properties
• 7.2 Temperature Dependence of the Dielectric Properties
• 7.3 Density and Field Orientation Dependence of Dielectric Properties
• 7.4 Dielectric Modelling of Organic Materials
• 7.4.1 Modelling the Dielectric Properties of Free Water
• 7.4.2 Modelling the Dielectric Properties of Bound Water
• 7.4.3 Modelling the Dielectric Properties of Moist Wood
• 7.4.4 Modelling the Dielectric Properties of Grains
• 7.4.5 Modelling the Dielectric Properties of Soils
• 7.4.6 Dielectric Properties of Insects
• 7.5 Conclusions
• References
• 8 Insect and Decay Detection
• 8.1 Radar Entomology
• 8.1.1 Antennas
• 8.1.2 Rectangular Apertures
• 8.1.3 Open Ended Wave-Guide
• 8.1.4 Horn Antennas
• 8.1.5 Circular Apertures
• 8.1.6 Antenna Gain
• 8.1.7 Radar Range
• 8.1.8 Radar Cross Section
• 8.1.9 Close Range Radar
• 8.1.10 Motion Detection - Doppler Shift
• 8.2 Free-Space Microwave Systems
• 8.2.1 Decay Detection
• 8.3 Conclusions
• References
• 9 Moisture Monitoring
• 9.1 Free-Space Moisture Detection
• 9.1.1 Practical Applications
• 9.2 Microwave Emissions as a Measure of Moisture
• 9.3 Radar Moisture Measurement
• References
• 10 Radar Imaging
• 10.1 Radar Imaging
• 10.2 Image Distortion
• 10.3 Target Interaction and Image Appearance
• 10.4 Airborne versus Space-borne Radar
• 10.5 Ground Penetrating Radar
• References
• 11 Electromagnetic Survey Techniques
• 11.1 Electromagnetic Induction
• 11.1.1 EM31
• 11.1.2 EM34
• 11.1.3 EM39
• 11.1.4 EM38
• 11.2 Global Positioning System
• 11.2.1 Principles of GPS Operation
• 11.2.2 Step 1: Triangulating from Satellites
• 11.2.3 Step 2: Measuring distance from a satellite
• 11.2.4 Step 3: Getting perfect timing
• 11.2.5 Step 4: Knowing where a satellite is in space
• 11.2.6 Step 5: Correcting errors
• 11.2.7 Differential GPS
• 11.3 Geographic Information Systems
• 11.3.1 Integratio
• 11.3.2 Limitations
• References
• 12 Section Introduction
• References
• 13 Dielectric Heating
• 13.1 Conductive Heat Transfe
• 13.2 Convective Heating
• 13.3 Radiative Heat Transfer
• 13.4 Microwave Heating
• 13.5 Microwave Frequency and its Influence over Microwave Heating
• 13.6 The Influence of Material Geometry on Microwave Heating
• 13.7 Comparative Efficiency of Convective and Microwave Heating
• 13.8 Thermal Runaway
• 13.9 Examples of Using Thermal Runaway to Great Advantage
• 13.10 Conclusion
• Nomenclature
• References
• 14 Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Movement
• 14.1 Temperature Sensing in Electromagnetic Fields
• References
• 15 Microwave Drying
• 15.1 Microwave Drying of Crop Fodder
• 15.2 Modelling Microwave Drying
• 15.3 Effect of Microwave Drying on Milling Properties
• References
• 16 Radio Frequency and Microwave Processing of Food
• 16.1 Dielectric Properties of Foods
• 16.2 Comparative Efficiency of Convective and Microwave Heating
• References
• 17 Microwave Applicators
• 17.1 Wave-Guides
• 17.2 Waveguide Modes
• 17.3 Other Wave-guide Modes
• 17.4 Transverse Magnetic Modes
• 17.5 Wave-guide Cut-off Conditions
• 17.6 Wavelength in a Wave-guide
• 17.7 Wave Impedance in a Wave-guide
• 17.8 Power Flow along a Wave-guide Propagating in TE10 Mode
• 17.9 Cylindrical Wave Guides
• 17.10 Microwave Ovens
• 17.11 Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) Simulating Microwave Field Distributions in Applicators
• 17.12 Microwave Safety
• 17.13 Antenna Applicators
• 17.13.1 Analysis of a Horn Antenna
• 17.13.2 A Uniformly Illuminated Aperture Approximation
• 17.13.3 A Numerical Integration Approximation
• 17.13.4 Other Options
• Nomenclature
• Appendix A - Derivation of Near Field from a Uniformly Illuminated Rectangular Aperture
• References
• 18 Quarantine and Biosecurity
• 18.1 Insect Control
• 18.2 The Background to Microwave and Radiofrequency Quarantine
• 18.2.1 Termites as a Case Study
• 18.3 Microbial Control
• 18.4 Conclusions
• References
• 19 Weed Management
• 19.1 Radio Frequency and Microwave Treatments
• 19.2 Microwave Treatment of Plants
• 19.3 Reinterpretation of Earlier Microwave Weed Experiments
• 19.4 Impact of Microwave Treatment on Soil
• 19.5 Crop Growth Response
• 19.6 Analysis of Potential Crop Yield Response to Microwave Weed Management
• 19.7 The Potential for Including Microwave Weed Control for Herbicide Resistance Management
• 19.8 Conclusion
• Nomenclature
• Appendix A - Derivation of the Impact of Weed Infestation and Herbicide Control on Crop Yield Respon
• Herbicide Weed Management
• Microwave Weed Management
• References
• 20 Treatment of Animal Fodder
• 20.1 Effect of Microwave Treatment on Digestibility
• 20.2 Microstructure Changes
• 20.3 Potential Mitigation of Methane Production
• 20.4 Microwave Treatment of Grains
• 20.5 Effect of Microwave Heating on Crude Protein
• 20.6 Conclusion
• References
• 21 Wood Modification
• 21.1 Applications of Microwave Modification in Wood Drying
• 21.2 Improving Wood Impregnation
• 21.3 Stress Relief
• 21.4 Industrial Scale Pilot Plant
• 21.5 Pre-treatment for Wood Pulping
• References
• 22 Microwave Assisted Extraction
• 22.1 Solvent based Extraction of Essential Oils
• 22.2 Solvent Free Extraction of Essential Oils
• 22.3 Microwave Pre-treatment Followed by Conventional Extraction Techniques
• 22.4 Application to Sugar Juice Extraction
• 22.5 Microwave Accelerated Steam Distillation
• References
• 23 Thermal Processing of Biomass
• 23.1 BioSolids
• 23.2 Biosolids’ Composition and Characteristics
• 23.3 Nutrient Value of Biosolids
• 23.4 Current Applications of Biosolids
• 23.5 Thermal Processing of Materials
• 23.5.1 Combustion
• 23.5.2 Gasification
• 23.5.3 Anaerobic Decomposition (Torrefaction and Pyrolysis)
• 23.6 Microwave-assisted Pyrolysis
• 23.7 Biochar
• References
• 24 Section Introduction
• References
• 25 Data Acquisition
• 25.1 Sensors / Transducers
• 25.2 Power Supply
• 25.3 Accuracy and Its Components
• 25.4 Transducer Output
• 25.5 Signal Conditioning
• 25.5.1 Noise
• 25.5.2 Amplification
• 25.5.3 Offset Adjustment
• 25.6 Digital Data Acquisition
• 25.6.1 Sample and Hold Circuits
• 25.6.2 Aliasing
• 25.6.3 Multiplexing
• 25.6.4 Analogue-to-Digital Conversion
• 25.7 Software
• 25.8 Lightning Protection
• 25.8.1 Some Notes on Earthing Systems
• References
• 26 Radio Frequency and Microwave Communication Systems
• 26.1 Principles of RF and Microwave Communication
• 26.2 Principles of Wireless Communication
• 26.3 Modulation
• 26.4 Simplex, Half-duplex and Duplex Communication Systems
• 26.5 Digital Communication
• 26.6 Transmission Channels
• 26.6.1 Transmission Lines
• 26.6.2 Loss-Less Transmission Line
• 26.6.3 Lossy Transmission Line
• 26.6.4 Optic Fibre
• 26.7 Wireless Radio Channels
• References
• 27 Wireless Ad Hoc Sensor Networks
• 27.1 Network Configurations
• 27.2 Open Source Platforms
• 27.2.1 Raspberry Pi
• 27.2.2 Arduino
• 27.3 Mobile Telephone Networks
• 27.4 Power Supply
• 27.4.1 Available Solar Energy
• References
• 28 RFID Systems
• 28.1 Active, Semi-passive and Passive RFID Tags
• 28.2 Animal Tracking Systems
• 28.3 Environmental Sensor Applications
• 28.4 Near Field Communication
• References
• 29 Conclusions
• 29.1 Heating Applications
• 29.2 Sensor Applications
• 29.3 Communication Systems
• 29.4 Conclusion
• References