This book contains 33 chapters focusing on taxonomy, population dynamics, biological characteristics, feeding behaviour, crop damage, disease transmission, control, monitoring and forecasting of aphid pests of various crops. The efficacy of various methods (biological, chemical, cultural and host resistance) and their combinations for the control of these aphid pests are also discussed.

• Aphids as Crop Pests: Second Edition
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface to the First Edition
• Preface to the Second Edition
• List of Contributors
• 1: Taxonomic Issues
  • Introduction
  • Interpreting Variation in Aphids
  • The Taxonomy of Pest Aphids – What’s in a Name?
  • The Use of Molecular Methods in Aphid Taxonomy
  • The 15 Aphid Species of Most Agricultural Importance
    • Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid) (Fig. 1.1)
    • Aphis craccivora (cowpea aphid) (Fig.1.2)
    • Aphis fabae (black bean aphid) (Fig. 1.3)
    • Aphis gossypii (cotton or melon aphid) (Fig. 1.4)
    • Aphis spiraecola (spiraea aphid or green citrus aphid) (Fig. 1.5)
    • Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid) (Fig.1.6)
    • Lipaphis pseudobrassicae (mustard aphid, also known as the false cabbage aphid) (Fig. 1.7)
    • Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) (Fig. 1.8)
    • Metopolophium dirhodum (rose–grain aphid) (Fig. 1.9)
    • Myzus persicae (peach–potato aphid) (Fig. 1.10)
    • Rhopalosiphum maidis (corn leaf aphid) (Fig. 1.11)
    • Rhopalosiphum padi (bird cherry–oat aphid) (Fig. 1.12)
    • Schizaphis graminum (greenbug) (Fig. 1.13)
    • Sitobion avenae (grain aphid) (Fig.1.14)
    • Therioaphis trifolii (alfalfa aphid or yellow clover aphid) (Fig. 1.15)
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 2: Aphid Genomics and its Contribution to Understanding Aphids as Crop Pests
  • Introduction
  • Aphid Genome Properties
  • Polyphenism and Reproduction
  • Host Location
  • Aphid–Plant Interactions During Feeding
  • Growth and Development
  • Immunity
  • Virus Transmission
  • Aphid Control, Insecticides and Resistance
  • Symbiosis
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 3: Population Genetic Issues: New Insights Using Conventional Molecular Markers and Genomics Tools
  • Introduction
    • Aphids as pests of crops and their adaptations
    • What the use of molecular markers in aphid studies has so far revealed
    • The way forward: new genomics approaches to studying aphids
  • Identification of Species
  • Identification of Clones
  • Host-plant Adaptation
    • Cereal aphids
    • Pea aphid
    • Cotton aphid or melon aphid
    • Peach–potato and tobacco aphids
  • Life Cycle in Relation to Climate
  • Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Aphids, Including Short- and Longer-distance Aerial Movements
  • Metapopulations
  • Superclones . . . or Superclans?
  • Tracing the Origin of Aphid Genotypes
  • Detecting Foreign Bodies in Aphids Using Molecular Markers
  • Aphid Genomics
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 4: Life Cycles and Polyphenism
  • Introduction
  • Types of Life Cycle
    • Host-alternating aphids
    • Non-host-alternating aphids
    • Two-year life cycles
    • Holocyclic and anholocyclic life cycles
  • Factors Determining the Production of Different Morphs
    • Determination of sexual morphs
    • Determination of asexual winged morphs
    • Diapausing morphs
    • Colour polymorphism
    • Physiological control of polyphenism
  • The Importance of Different Morphs for Crop Protection
    • Pest status
    • Virus transmission
    • Forecasting
  • The Importance of Polyphenism in Determining Pest Status
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 5: Growth and Development
  • Introduction
    • Definitions
    • Uses of aphid growth and developmental rates
  • Measurement of Aphid Growth and Developmental Rates
    • Growth rates
    • Developmental rates
    • The intrinsic rate of increase, r m
  • Experimental Techniques
    • Aphid cages
    • Disadvantages of aphid cages
  • Limitations on the Use of Aphid Growth and Development Measures
    • The reliability of size × fecundity relationships
    • Variable growth, development and reproductive rates
    • Decoupling development times and fecundity
  • Factors Affecting Aphid Growth and Development
    • Genotype effects
    • Host-plant effects
    • Difference between nymphs destined to be apterous and alate
    • Effects of temperature
    • Population-scale effects
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 6: Nutrition and Symbiosis
  • Introduction
  • Microbial Symbiosis in Aphids
    • Diversity of microorganisms
    • Location of symbiotic microorganisms
    • Acquisition of symbiotic microorganisms
    • Significance of symbiotic microorganisms to aphids
  • Carbon Nutrition
    • Sugars
    • Lipids
  • Nitrogen Nutrition
    • Amino acids and their sources
    • The fate of amino acids in aphids
    • Other dietary sources of nitrogen
  • Minerals and Micronutrients
  • Artificial Diet
    • History of artificial diets for aphids
    • Recipe for the diet and practical procedures
    • Relation between the diet and plant phloem sap
    • Aphid performance on the diet
    • How useful is the diet for studies on aphid nutrition?
  • Conclusions and Future Prospects
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 7: Aphids and Stress
  • Introduction
  • Temperature Effects on Aphids
  • Adaptation to Cold Stress
    • Overwintering specialist morphs
    • Acclimation
  • Effects of High Temperature
    • Behavioural adaptations to high temperature
    • Emerging technologies to study aphids and stress
    • Physiological adaptations to high temperature
  • Temperature Effects on Diet
  • Drought and Aphids
    • Haemolymph osmotic homeostasis
    • How do aphids osmoregulate?
    • Secondary effects of drought on aphids – nutrition
    • Secondary effects of host-plant drought on aphids – allocation to defence
    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) as stress and defence
  • Molecular Clues to Aphid Stress Responses
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 8: Chemical Ecology
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Interactions between Aphids
    • Sex pheromones
    • Alarm pheromones
    • Social interactions: aggregation, density regulation and avoidance
      • Aggregation
      • Density regulation and avoidance
  • Interaction with Plants
    • Host-plant semiochemicals
      • Semiochemicals of the primary host of host-alternating aphids
      • Semiochemicals of the secondary host of host-alternating aphids
      • Non-host-plant semiochemicals
    • Aphid effects on the plant
  • Interaction with Natural Enemies
    • Responses of natural enemies to aphid-produced chemicals
      • Parasitoids
      • Predators
    • Responses of natural enemies to aphid-induced plant signals
      • Parasitoids
      • Predators
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 9: Host-plant Selection and Feeding
  • Introduction
  • Orientation and Host-plant Finding
    • Visual responses
    • Olfactory responses
  • Plant Contact after Landing
  • Probing – Plant Penetration
    • Pathway phase
    • Phloem phase
      • E1 salivation
      • E2 ingestion
      • Sustained phloem feeding
      • Salivary secretions during probing
    • Xylem phase
  • Incompatible Aphid–plant Interaction (Plant Resistance)
  • Host Alternation and Changes in Host-plant Preference
  • Plant Predisposition to Aphid Probing
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 10: Aphid Movement: Process and Consequences
  • Introduction
  • Pest Status
  • The Nature of Aphid Movement
  • Conceptual Framework for Aphid Movement
    • Modes of transport
    • Scales of displacement
    • Aphid life stages, morphs
  • The Migratory Process
    • Events leading to take-off
      • Host-plant physiology
      • Crowding
      • Presence of natural enemies
      • Ant tending
    • Take-off and ascent
      • Physiological factors
      • Atmospheric influences
      • Interactions of physiological and atmospheric influences
    • Horizontal translocation
    • Switching off the migratory urge
  • Appetitive Dispersal
    • Stimuli that cause aphids to disperse in an appetitive manner
      • Physical mechanisms
      • Host-plant influences
      • Natural enemies and alarm pheromones
    • Response to multiple perturbations
    • Landing and alighting cues
  • Incorporating Aphid Movement into Pest Management Strategies
    • Components of IPM programmes
      • Fundamentals
      • Tactics
      • The strategic component
    • Categories of aphids as agricultural pests
      • Transient non-vectors
      • Transient vectors
      • Colonizing non-vectors
      • Colonizing vectors
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 11: Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens
  • Introduction
  • Aphid predators
    • Ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Fig. 11.1)
      • General biology
      • Adult and larval foraging for aphids
      • Oviposition and predatory behaviour in aphid patches
      • Prey specificity
      • Ladybirds, aphid populations and aphid control
    • Syrphidae (hover flies) (Fig. 11.3)
      • General biology
      • Oviposition site selection
      • Prey specificity and larval foraging
      • Hover flies and aphid populations
    • Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (lacewings) (Fig. 11.4)
      • General biology
      • Adult foraging and oviposition behaviour
      • Larval foraging
      • Lacewings and aphid populations
    • Cecidomyiidae (predatory midges) (Fig. 11.5)
      • General biology
      • Oviposition behaviour
      • Prey specificity and larval feeding
    • Other arthropod predators
      • Predatory bugs
      • Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)
      • Polyphagous predators
  • Aphid Parasitoids
    • General biology
      • Aphidiinae (Fig. 11.7)
      • Aphelinus and related species
    • Foraging behaviour and host finding
      • Between-patch foraging behaviour
      • Within-patch foraging behaviour
      • Male foraging behaviour
    • Patterns of resource use
      • Low resource utilization
      • Resource utilization varies with ant attendance
      • Resource utilization varies with the host type
  • Aphid Pathogens (Fig. 11.9)
    • General biology of aphid-pathogenic fungi
    • Specialized biologies of entomophthoroid species
    • Epizootiology of entomophthoroid fungi
      • Abiotic conditions
      • Dispersal and contact rate
      • Host range, resistance and susceptibility
  • Intraguild Interactions and Mutualistic Ants
    • Intraguild predation and competition
    • The effect of mutualistic interactions with ants on predation and parasitism
    • The role of defensive aphid endosymbionts
  • Conclusion
  • References
• 12: Population Dynamics: Cycles and Patterns
  • Introduction
  • Overwintering Populations
  • Spring Populations
  • Onset of Dispersal to Crops
  • Arrival on Crops
  • The Population Cycle on Crops
    • Methodology
    • Factors causing numerical change
      • Abiotic factors
      • Natural enemies
      • Host-plant condition
      • Emigration
    • The development of populations on crops
  • Emigration at the End of the Season
  • Longer-term Regulation of Aphid Populations
  • Conclusion
  • References
• 13: Aphid Population Dynamics: From Fields to Landscapes
  • Introduction
  • The Aphid System: An Overview
  • Essential Life-cycle Issues that Modellers Need to Understand: Parthenogenesis, Viviparity and Polyphenism
  • Processes Related to Aphid Population Dynamics
  • Extrinsic Forcing Variables
    • Abiotic forcing variables: climate
      • Modelling the effect of temperature
    • Biotic forcing variables: plants
      • Modelling the effect of host plants
    • Biotic forcing variables: regulation by natural enemies
      • Incorporating predators and parasitoids into models
      • Incorporating diseases into models
  • Biological and Demographic Processes: Modelling Birth, Ageing, Moulting, Reproduction, Migration and Death
    • Modelling birth through fecundity
    • Modelling age and moulting
    • Modelling the migration process
    • Modelling death
      • Survival rate
      • Survival thresholds
  • Comprehensive Model
  • Scaling up from Fields to Landscapes: Demographic Considerations
    • Modeller’s headache: three issues to scaling up
    • Demographic characteristics of aphid populations that should be implicit within models
      • Variation in time
      • Variation in space
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 14: Feeding Injury
  • Introduction
  • The Causes, Signs and Outcomes of Infestation: Injury, Symptoms and Damage
    • Terminology
    • Common symptoms of infestation
    • Detection and quantification of symptoms induced by Aphidoidea
  • Modes of Injury by Aphidoidea
    • Plant penetration and mechanical injury
    • Aetiological agents in Aphidoidea oral secretions
  • The Physiological Bases for Symptom Development and Damage
    • Morphological modifications
    • Cytological damage
    • Disruption of resource allocation and transport
    • Perturbation of photosynthesis
      • Photosynthesis and stress
      • Measuring limitations on photosynthesis
      • Impacts of Aphidoidea on photosynthesis
  • Environmental Effects on Insect Damage: Aphidoidea in a Changing Climate
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 15: Transmission of Plant Viruses
  • Introduction
  • Virus–Vector Interactions
  • Aphids as Effective Virus Vectors
    • Host selection related to virus acquisition and inoculation
    • Early molecular events in aphid–plant interactions
    • Virus-induced changes in plants on aphid vectors
  • Transmission Modes of Plant Viruses by Aphids
    • Non-persistent transmission
      • Transmission characteristics
      • Mechanisms of transmission
    • Semi-persistent transmission
      • Transmission characteristics
      • Mechanisms of transmission
      • Virus–aphid molecular interactions during transmission of non- and semi-persistent (non-circulative) viruses
      • Vector specificity in non- and semi-persistent (non-circulative) viruses
      • Other factors affecting transmission of non- and semi-persistent viruses
    • Persistent transmission
      • Non-propagative circulative transmission
      • Propagative circulative transmission
  • Epidemiology
    • Biological factors
      • Virus
    • Cultural practices
    • Weather
  • Disease Forecasting
  • Disease Management Strategies
    • Use of genotypes resistant to the virus and/or to the aphid vectors
    • Elimination of virus sources (see also Chapter 29, this volume)
      • Use of virus-free seed and vegetative propagative material through seed certification programmes
      • Weed control
      • Roguing of diseased crop plants
      • Eradication of volunteer plants
      • Isolation from virus sources
    • Prevention or reduction of virus spread
      • Plant spacing
      • Control or avoidance of vectors
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 16: Monitoring and Forecasting
  • Introduction
  • Why Monitor and Forecast?
  • What Should be Monitored and Forecast?
  • Where Should Monitoring and Forecasting be Done?
  • When Should Monitoring and Forecasting be Done?
  • How Can Aphids be Monitored and Forecast?
    • Monitoring
      • Monitoring in crops
      • Aerial monitoring
      • Monitoring aphid attributes
    • Forecasting
      • Uptake and outcomes
      • Forecasting the impacts of environmental changes
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 17: Decision Support Systems
  • Introduction
  • Making a DSS: the Biological Constraints of Dealing with Aphids
  • Making an Aphid DSS: Some Basic Mathematical Constraints of Decision Making
  • Aphi.net : a DSS for Managing Aphids Spreading Virus on Cereals
  • Past and Present Aphid DSSs
  • Conclusion
    • Are aphid DSSs really short-lived and underused?
    • How to improve aphid DSS adoption and usefulness?
    • Upcoming opportunities for the revival of DSSs
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 18: Chemical Control
  • Introduction
  • Availability and Choice of Aphicides
  • Modes of Action of Aphicides
    • Carbamates (Group 1A) and organophosphates (1B)
    • Pyrethroids (3A)
    • Neonicotinoids (4A)
    • Pymetrozine (9B) and flonicamid (9C)
    • Diafenthiuron (12A)
    • Tebufenpyrad (21)
    • Spirotetramat (23)
    • Cyantraniliprole (28)
    • Combination products
    • Adjuvants and synergists
  • Application
  • Thresholds for Control (see also the IPM section of this volume)
    • Wheat and barley
    • Pea
    • Field bean
    • Brassicas
    • Cotton
    • Sugar beet
    • Top fruit
    • Lettuce
    • Soybean
  • Efficacy
    • Poaceae (cereal crops)
      • Wheat and barley
      • Maize
      • Sorghum
    • Soft fruit
    • Top fruit
      • Apple and pear
      • Citrus fruits
      • Plum (Prunus domestica)
    • Solanaceae
      • Potato
      • Tobacco
      • Tomato
      • Aubergine (Solanum melongena)
    • Chenopodiaceae (sugar beet)
    • Fabaceae
    • Brassicas
    • Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa)
    • Other vegetables
    • Malvaceae
      • Cotton
      • Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
    • Other crops
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 19: Insecticide Resistance
  • Introduction
  • Diagnosis of Resistance in Aphids
  • Biochemistry and Molecular Basis of Resistance
    • Resistance mechanisms in Myzus persicae (peach–potato aphid)
      • Metabolic mechanisms
      • Target site mechanisms
      • Aphid superclones
    • Resistance mechanisms in other aphid species
      • Aphis gossypii (cotton aphid or melon aphid)
      • Schizaphis graminum (greenbug)
      • Phorodon humuli (damson–hop aphid)
      • Nasonovia ribisnigri (currant–lettuce aphid)
      • Sitobion avenae (English grain aphid)
      • Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid)
  • Factors Affecting the Dynamics of Insecticide Resistance in the Field
    • Selection pressures
    • Ecological factors
    • Pleiotropic effects of resistance
      • Reduced overwintering ability
      • Maladaptive behaviour
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• 20: Biological Control
  • Introduction
  • Natural Enemies
  • Parasitoids
    • Classical biological control
      • Glasshouse crops
      • Field crops
      • Appraisal of classical biological control using parasitoids
    • Biological control by augmentation in field crops
  • Predators
    • Aphidoletes aphidimyza (predatory gall midge)
      • Glasshouses
      • Field and orchard crops
      • Mass rearing
    • Coccinellidae (ladybirds)
      • Glasshouses
      • Field crops and amenity plants
      • Orchard crops
    • Chrysopidae (lacewings)
      • Glasshouses
      • Field crops and amenity plants
      • Orchard crops and tree seedlings
    • Syrphidae (hover flies)
  • Entomopathogenic Fungal Species
    • Taxonomic revision
    • Mycoinsecticides and aphid biocontrol
      • Hypocreales
      • Entomophthoromycota
    • Future of mycopesticides and genomic advances
  • General Conclusions
  • References
• 21: Cultural Control
  • Introduction
  • Overview
  • Mulches
  • Row Covers
  • Particle Films
  • Sowing and Planting Date
  • Plant Density
  • Crop Plant Pruning
  • Irrigation and Fertilizer Management
  • Intercropping, Living Mulches and Cover Crops
  • Trap Crops
  • Provision of Resources for Natural Enemies
  • Provision of Refuges for Natural Enemies
  • Conclusions
  • References
• 22: Host-plant Resistance
  • Introduction
  • Types of Host-plant Resistance to Aphids
    • Antixenosis (close to Painter’s ‘non-preference’)
    • Antibiosis
    • Tolerance
    • What is the preferred type of resistance?
  • Mechanisms of Host-plant Resistance to Aphids
    • Mechanisms of antixenosis
      • Colour
      • Palatability
      • Waxiness
      • Mechanical
      • Local necrosis
      • Trichomes (non-glandular)
    • Mechanisms of antibiosis
      • Glandular trichomes
      • Toxins
      • Nutritional factors
      • Extrinsic factors
    • Mechanisms of tolerance
      • Compensation
      • Symptom expression
  • Further Considerations
    • Yield drag or other fitness costs
    • Negative effects on natural enemies
    • Problem trading
    • Biotypes
    • Spread of viruses (see also Chapter 15, this volume)
    • Interactions with other control measures
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgement
  • References
• 23: Integrated Pest Management and Introduction to IPM Case Studies
  • Introduction
  • Integration of Chemical and Biological Control
    • Use of a selective active ingredient
    • Dose reduction
    • Selectivity in space
    • Selectivity in time
  • Integration of Chemical Control and Host-plant Resistance (HPR)
  • Integration of Biological Control and HPR
    • Numerical responses
    • Functional responses
  • Three-Way Integration of Chemical Control, HPR and Biological Control
  • Integration of Cultural Control and Biological Control
  • The IPM Case Studies (Chapters 24–33)
    • The crop scenarios
  • Conclusions from the Case Studies
  • References
• 24: IPM Case Studies: Grain
  • Introduction
  • Basic Characteristics of the Main Aphid Species in Cereals (Species, Population Dynamics, Damage)
    • Cereal aphids of major importance in central Europe
      • Basic characteristics
      • Population dynamics
      • Damage
    • Cereal aphids of minor importance in central Europe
  • Monitoring and Control
    • Monitoring, forecasting and decision-making systems
      • Autumn
      • Hibernation
      • Summer/mass development
    • Chemical control and pesticide resistance
    • Biological control
      • Natural enemies
      • Biocontrol approaches
    • Cultural control
    • Host-plant resistance
  • Conclusions
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 25: IPM Case Studies: Sorghum
  • Introduction
  • History of Schizaphis graminum on Sorghum
  • Greenbug Management Practices
    • Chemical control
    • Host-plant resistance
    • Biological control
    • Cultural control
  • The Big Picture
  • Conclusions
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 26: IPM Case Studies: Leafy Salad Crops
  • Introduction
    • What are leafy salad crops?
    • The IPM challenge
  • The Aphids
  • Components for Aphid IPM
    • Chemicals and resistance to insecticides
    • Chemical control – reducing insecticides
    • Biological control
    • Host-plant resistance
    • Modifying aphid behaviour
  • IPM in Practice
    • Assurance and accreditation schemes
    • Practical control
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 27: IPM Case Studies: Brassicas
  • Introduction
  • Biology of Pest Aphids in the UK
  • Integrated Crop Management
  • Control Methods
    • Chemical control
    • Monitoring and forecasting
    • Sampling and decision making
    • Biological control
    • Host-plant resistance
    • Cultural control
      • Crop covers (Fig. 27.3)
      • Increasing crop diversity
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 28: IPM Case Studies: Cucurbits
  • Introduction
  • Aphid-vectored Viruses Affecting Cucurbits
  • Management Options for Aphids and Aphid-Vectored Viruses in Cucurbits
    • Chemical control
      • Oils
      • Sampling and thresholds
    • Biological control
    • Host-plant resistance
    • Cross-protection
    • Cultural control
      • The role of weeds in the control of aphid-vectored viruses
      • Mulches
      • Floating row covers
      • Living mulches and intercropping
      • Sanitation and removal of infected plants
  • IPM Programmes for Cucurbits that Include Aphid Management
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 29: IPM Case Studies: Seed Potato
  • Introduction
  • Potato Viruses and their Aphid Vectors
  • Monitoring Aphids
  • Mathematical Modelling
  • Integrated Pest Management
  • Cultural Control
    • Seed potato certification
    • Crop isolation from virus sources
      • Roguing
      • Groundkeepers and volunteers
    • Chemical control
      • Insecticides
      • Mineral oils
    • Biological control
    • Host-plant resistance
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 30: IPM Case Studies: Cotton
  • Introduction
  • Damage and Economic Impact
    • Disruption of plant growth
    • Vector-borne diseases
    • Sticky cotton
    • Economic impact
  • Main Biological and Ecological Traits of the Cotton Aphid
    • Life cycle
    • Host plants and host races
    • Biological regulation
  • Tools for IPM
    • Host-plant resistance
    • Cultural practices
    • Biological control
    • Cotton aphid management in organic cotton
    • Chemical control
      • Seed treatment
      • Foliar insecticides
      • Insecticide resistance (see Chapter 19, this volume, for resistance mechanisms)
      • Action thresholds
  • The Case of Bt Cotton
  • Perspectives
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 31: IPM Case Studies: Berry Crops
  • Introduction
  • Aphid IPM in Raspberry
  • Aphid IPM in Blueberry
  • Aphid IPM in Strawberry
  • Aphid IPM in Grape
  • Acknowledgements
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 32: IPM Case Studies: Deciduous Fruit Tree Aphids
  • Introduction
  • Apple and Pear Aphids
    • Damage and virus transmission
    • Monitoring and economic thresholds
    • Chemical and supervised control
    • Biological control
  • Stone-fruit Tree Aphids
    • Damage and virus transmission
    • Monitoring and economic thresholds
    • Chemical and supervised control
    • Biological control
  • Acknowledgements
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• 33: IPM Case Studies: Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Trees
  • Introduction
  • Citrus Aphids
    • Damage and virus transmission
    • Monitoring and economic thresholds
    • Chemical and supervised control
    • Biological control
  • Tropical Fruit Tree Aphids
    • Damage and virus transmission
    • Monitoring and economic thresholds
    • Supervised chemical control
    • Biological control
  • Acknowledgements
  • Executive Summary
  • References
• TAXONOMIC GLOSSARY
• Index