"A comprehensive, practical text which covers a diverse range of hydroponic and protected cropping techniques, systems, greenhouse types and environments. It also covers related subjects such as the use of indoor plant factories, vertical systems, organic hydroponics, aquaponics and other systems"--.

• Cover
• Hydroponics and Protected Cultivation
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Background and History of Hydroponics and Protected Cultivation
  • 1.1 Protected Cropping
  • 1.2 The Future of Protected Cropping
  • 1.3 Background and History of Hydroponic Production
  • 1.4 Hydroponic Systems
  • 1.5 Substrate-Based Hydroponic Systems
  • 1.6 Organic Hydroponics
  • 1.7 Summary
  • References
• 2 Greenhouses and Protected Cropping Structures
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Glasshouses and Plastic Greenhouses
  • 2.3 Closed and Semi-Closed Greenhouse Structures
  • 2.4 Passive Solar Greenhouses
  • 2.5 Sustainable Greenhouse Design
  • 2.6 Cladding Materials
  • 2.7 Screen Houses, Net Houses, Shade Houses, Rain Covers and Other Structures
  • 2.8 Screen and Shade Nets
  • 2.9 Low Tunnels and High Tunnels
  • 2.10 Hot Beds and Cold Frames
  • 2.11 Floating Mulches, Row Covers, Cloche Covers, Direct Covers and Frost Cloth
  • 2.12 Greenhouse Site Planning
  • 2.13 Windbreaks
  • 2.14 Outdoor Hydroponic Systems
  • 2.15 Controlled-Environment Agriculture
  • References
• 3 The Greenhouse Environment and Energy Use
  • 3.1 Introduction – Environmental Modification in Protected Cropping
  • 3.2 Heating
  • 3.3 Cooling
  • 3.4 Lighting
  • 3.5 Shading
  • 3.6 Ventilation and Air Movement
  • 3.7 Humidity
  • 3.8 Carbon Dioxide Enrichment
  • 3.9 Greenhouse Automation
  • 3.10 Energy Use and Conservation in Protected Cropping
  • 3.11 Energy Sources for Protected Cropping
    • 3.11.1 Renewable energy sources
    • 3.11.2 Geothermal energy
    • 3.11.3 Solar energy
    • 3.11.4 Passive solar energy
    • 3.11.5 Wind-generated energy
    • 3.11.6 Biomass and biofuels
  • References
• 4 Greenhouse Operation and Management
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Greenhouse Sanitation and Hygiene
    • 4.2.1 Hygiene and sanitation for food safety
    • 4.2.2 Food safety and compliance programmes
    • 4.2.3 Hygiene and sanitation for crop protection
  • 4.3 Source Water Quality and Treatment
  • 4.4 Greenhouse Biosecurity
    • 4.4.1 People movement, human activity and biosecurity measures
    • 4.4.2 Staff, visitors and hygiene
  • 4.5 Waste Management and Disposal
    • 4.5.1 Disposal of greenhouse wastewater
    • 4.5.2 Treatment of wastewater
    • 4.5.3 Disposal of and reduction in organic waste
    • 4.5.4 Disposal of plastics
    • 4.5.5 Disposal of pesticides and agrochemical containers
  • 4.6 Occupational Health and Safety
  • References
• 5 Hydroponic Systems – Solution Culture
  • 5.1 Introduction – Solution Culture Systems
  • 5.2 NFT – Nutrient Film Technique
    • 5.2.1 NFT crops
    • 5.2.2 Types of NFT systems
    • 5.2.3 Nutrient solution management in NFT
  • 5.3 Deep Water Culture/Deep Flow Technique – Float, Raft or Pond Systems
    • 5.3.1 Management of DWC and DFT systems
  • 5.4 Aeroponics
  • 5.5 Vertical Systems
  • 5.6 Aquaponics
  • 5.7 Organic Solution Culture
  • 5.8 Hydroponic Fodder Systems
  • 5.9 Nutrient Chilling Systems
  • 5.10 Automation for Solution Culture Systems
  • References
• 6 Substrate-based Hydroponic Systems
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Properties of Hydroponic Substrates
  • 6.3 Open and Closed Soilless Systems
  • 6.4 Common Hydroponic Substrates
    • 6.4.1 Stone wool (mineral wool, rockwool or glass wool)
    • 6.4.2 Coconut fibre (coir, palm peat, coco peat, coco)
    • 6.4.3 Peat, bark and sawdust
    • 6.4.4 Perlite
    • 6.4.5 Pumice and scoria
    • 6.4.6 Vermiculite
    • 6.4.7 Expanded clay
    • 6.4.8 Rice hulls
    • 6.4.9 Sand and gravels
    • 6.4.10 New substrates
  • 6.5 Substrates and Water-Holding Capacity
  • 6.6 Substrates and Oversaturation
  • 6.7 Matching Substrates to Crop Species
  • 6.8 Physical Properties of Soilless Substrates
    • 6.8.1 Bulk density
    • 6.8.2 Particle size distribution
    • 6.8.3 Total porosity
    • 6.8.4 Air-filled porosity
    • 6.8.5 Water-holding capacity or container capacity
  • 6.9 Chemical Properties of Hydroponic Substrates
    • 6.9.1 pH
    • 6.9.2 Cation exchange capacity
    • 6.9.3 Specific ion contents, salinity and electrical conductivity
    • 6.9.4 Testing methods
  • 6.10 Nutrient Delivery in Substrate Systems
    • 6.10.1 Drip irrigation
    • 6.10.2 Drip-irrigated systems – design and layout
    • 6.10.3 Ebb and flow (flood and drain) nutrient delivery systems
    • 6.10.4 Capillary watering systems
    • 6.10.5 Gravity-fed irrigation
    • 6.10.6 Nutrient dosing and injectors
  • 6.11 Irrigation and Moisture Control in Substrates
    • 6.11.1 Substrate moisture, growth balance and deficit irrigation
  • 6.12 Microbial Populations in Substrates
  • References
• 7 Organic Soilless Greenhouse Systems
  • 7.1 Introduction – Organic Greenhouse Production
  • 7.2 Organic Hydroponic Systems
  • 7.3 Organic Hydroponic Nutrients
  • 7.4 Microbial Mineralization of Organic Nutrients for Hydroponics
  • 7.5 Anaerobic and Aerobic Processing of Organic Materials
  • 7.6 Vermicast and Vermicomposting
  • 7.7 Using Vermiculture Liquids in Hydroponics
  • 7.8 Composting for Organic Nutrient Processing and Substrate Preparation
  • 7.9 Organic Materials for Vermicast, Composting and Biodigester Systems
    • 7.9.1 Organic fertilizer/nutrient sources
    • 7.9.2 Animal sources of organic fertilizers
    • 7.9.3 Plant-based inputs
  • 7.10 Aquaponics
  • 7.11 Organic Hydroponic Production Systems
  • 7.12 Biofilms in Organic Hydroponic Systems
  • 7.13 Nutrient Amendments
  • 7.14 Organic Certification in the USA
  • 7.15 Organic Pest and Disease Control
  • 7.16 Hybrid Systems
  • 7.17 Issues Commonly Encountered with Organic Hydroponic Systems
  • 7.18 Conclusions
  • References
• 8 Propagation and Transplant Production
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Propagation from Seed
    • 8.2.1 Hybrid seed versus open-pollinated seed
    • 8.2.2 Seed treatments – pelleting, coating and priming
    • 8.2.3 Seed storage
    • 8.2.4 Production of transplants from seed
  • 8.3 Seedling Delivery Systems
  • 8.4 Seeding Methods
  • 8.5 Germination Problems
  • 8.6 Transplant Production Systems
    • 8.6.1 Transplant production environment
    • 8.6.2 Seedling nutrition
  • 8.7 Use of Plant Factories for Seedling Transplant Production
  • 8.8 Organic Transplant Production
  • 8.9 Transplant Establishment
  • 8.10 Grafting
  • 8.11 Vegetative Propagation
  • 8.12 Tissue Culture
    • 8.12.1 Tissue culture techniques and methods
  • References
• 9 Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Formulation
  • 9.1 Water Quality and Sources for Hydroponic Production
    • 9.1.1 Well water
    • 9.1.2 Surface water
    • 9.1.3 Rainwater
    • 9.1.4 City or municipal water supplies
    • 9.1.5 Reclaimed water sources
  • 9.2 Water Testing
  • 9.3 Water Analysis Reports
    • 9.3.1 pH and alkalinity
    • 9.3.2 Electrical conductivity
    • 9.3.3 Mineral elements in water supplies
      • Nitrate
      • Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulfur
      • Sodium
      • Chloride
      • Iron
      • Manganese
      • Boron
      • Copper
      • Zinc
  • 9.4 Water Quality and Plant Growth
  • 9.5 Water Treatment Options
  • 9.6 Water Usage and Supply Requirements
  • 9.7 Plant Nutrition in Hydroponic Systems
  • 9.8 Essential Elements – Functions in Plants and Deficiency Symptoms
    • 9.8.1 Nitrogen
    • 9.8.2 Potassium
    • 9.8.3 Phosphorus
    • 9.8.4 Calcium
    • 9.8.5 Magnesium
    • 9.8.6 Sulfur
    • 9.8.7 Iron
    • 9.8.8 Manganese
    • 9.8.9 Boron
    • 9.8.10 Zinc
    • 9.8.11 Copper
    • 9.8.12 Chloride
    • 9.8.13 Molybdenum
  • 9.9 Beneficial Elements
  • 9.10 Nutrient Formulation
    • 9.10.1 The process of nutrient formulation
  • 9.11 Hydroponic Nutrient Formulation – Nitrogen Sources
  • 9.12 Common Hydroponic Fertilizers
    • 9.12.1 Calcium nitrate
    • 9.12.2 Ammonium nitrate
    • 9.12.3 Ammonium phosphate
    • 9.12.4 Urea
    • 9.12.5 Potassium nitrate
    • 9.12.6 Potassium sulfate
    • 9.12.7 Monopotassium phosphate
    • 9.12.8 Calcium superphosphate
    • 9.12.9 Magnesium sulfate
    • 9.12.10 Magnesium nitrate
    • 9.12.11 Iron chelates
    • 9.12.12 Manganese sulfate, manganese chelates
    • 9.12.13 Copper sulfate, copper chelates
    • 9.12.14 Zinc sulfate, zinc chelates
    • 9.12.15 Boric acid, borax
    • 9.12.16 Sodium molybdate, ammonium molybdate
    • 9.12.17 Nitric and phosphoric acids
  • 9.13 Fertilizer Composition and Grades
  • 9.14 Chelation of Trace Elements
  • 9.15 Foliar Fertilizers
  • 9.16 Electrical Conductivity
  • 9.17 pH
  • 9.18 Automation and Testing Equipment
  • 9.19 Conditions Which Affect Nutrient Uptake Rates
    • 9.19.1 Temperature and humidity
    • 9.19.2 Time of day
    • 9.19.3 Light levels
    • 9.19.4 Root health and size
    • 9.19.5 Aeration and oxygenation
  • 9.20 Plant Tissue Analysis
  • 9.21 Fertilizer and Environmental Concerns
  • 9.22 Water and Nutrient Solution Treatment Methods
    • 9.22.1 Ultraviolet disinfection
    • 9.22.2 Ozone
    • 9.22.3 Filtration
    • 9.22.4 Slow sand filtration
    • 9.22.5 Chlorine
    • 9.22.6 Hydrogen peroxide
    • 9.22.7 Heat
  • 9.23 Surfactants
  • References
• 10 Plant Health, Plant Protection and Abiotic Factors
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Major Greenhouse Pests
    • 10.2.1 Whitefly
    • 10.2.2 Aphids
    • 10.2.3 Thrips
    • 10.2.4 Mites
    • 10.2.5 Caterpillars and leaf miner larvae
    • 10.2.6 Fungus gnats
    • 10.2.7 Nematodes
  • 10.3 Pest Control Options – Integrated Pest Management
  • 10.4 Selected Diseases of Hydroponic Crops
    • 10.4.1 Botrytis
    • 10.4.2 Mildew diseases
    • 10.4.3 Pythium root rot
    • 10.4.4 Wilt diseases
    • 10.4.5 Common bacterial diseases
    • 10.4.6 Virus diseases
  • 10.5 Abiotic Factors and Physiological Disorders
    • 10.5.1 Temperature damage
      • Heat injury
      • Low-temperature and chilling injury
    • 10.5.2 Light
    • 10.5.3 Root-zone abiotic factors
    • 10.5.4 Irrigation water quality and salinity
    • 10.5.5 Chemical injury (phytotoxicity)
    • 10.5.6 Ethylene
  • 10.6 Cultural Practices Causing Abiotic Disorders
  • 10.7 Identification of Abiotic Disorders
  • 10.8 Crop-Specific Physiological Disorders
    • 10.8.1 Blossom end rot
    • 10.8.2 Tipburn
    • 10.8.3 Bolting
    • 10.8.4 Fruit shape and splitting/cracking disorders
  • References
• 11 Hydroponic Production of Selected Crops
  • 11.1 Introduction
  • 11.2 Hydroponic Tomato Production
    • 11.2.1 Hydroponic systems for tomato production
    • 11.2.2 Tomato propagation
    • 11.2.3 Tomato environmental conditions
    • 11.2.4 Tomato crop training systems
    • 11.2.5 Tomato crop steering
    • 11.2.6 Tomato pollination and fruit development
    • 11.2.7 Tomato crop nutrition
    • 11.2.8 Tomato pests and diseases
    • 11.2.9 Tomato yields
  • 11.3 Hydroponic Capsicum Production
    • 11.3.1 Capsicum propagation
    • 11.3.2 Capsicum systems of production
    • 11.3.3 Capsicum pollination, fruit set and fruit development
    • 11.3.4 Capsicum training
    • 11.3.5 Capsicum crop nutrition
    • 11.3.6 Capsicum pests, diseases and physiological disorders
    • 11.3.7 Capsicum harvesting and yields
  • 11.4 Hydroponic Cucumber Production
    • 11.4.1 Cucumber propagation and production
    • 11.4.2 Cucumber environmental conditions
    • 11.4.3 Cucumber training and support systems
    • 11.4.4 Cucumber crop nutrition
    • 11.4.5 Cucumber harvesting and yields
    • 11.4.6 Cucumber pests, diseases and physiological disorders
  • 11.5 Lettuce and Other Salad Greens
    • 11.5.1 Lettuce propagation and production
    • 11.5.2 Lettuce environmental conditions
    • 11.5.3 Lettuce crop nutrition
    • 11.5.4 Lettuce pests, diseases and physiological disorders
    • 11.5.5 Lettuce harvesting and handling
  • 11.6 Production of Hydroponic Micro Greens
    • 11.6.1 Harvesting micro greens
  • 11.7 Hydroponic Strawberry Production
    • 11.7.1 Strawberry propagation
    • 11.7.2 Strawberry production systems
    • 11.7.3 Strawberry plant density, pruning, pollination and fruit growth
    • 11.7.4 Strawberry production environment
    • 11.7.5 Strawberry crop nutrition
    • 11.7.6 Strawberry pests, diseases and disorders
    • 11.7.7 Strawberry harvest and postharvest handling
  • 11.8 Hydroponic Rose Production
    • 11.8.1 Rose production systems and planting material
    • 11.8.2 Rose plant density, pruning and plant management
    • 11.8.3 Rose growing environment
    • 11.8.4 Rose crop nutrition
    • 11.8.5 Rose pests, diseases and disorders
    • 11.8.6 Rose harvesting
  • References
• 12 Plant Factories – Closed Plant Production Systems
  • 12.1 History and Background
  • 12.2 Advantages of Plant Factories
  • 12.3 Criticisms of Plant Factories
  • 12.4 Costs and Returns
  • 12.5 Domestic and Other Small-Scale Plant Factories
  • 12.6 Crops Produced Including Pharmaceuticals
  • 12.7 Vertical or Multilevel Systems, Including Moveable Systems
  • 12.8 Crop Nutrition in Plant Factories
  • 12.9 Plant Factory Environments
  • 12.10 Lighting
  • 12.11 Environmental Control and Plant Quality in Plant Factories
  • 12.12 Automation and Robotization
  • 12.13 New Innovations
  • References
• 13 Greenhouse Produce Quality and Assessment
  • 13.1 Background – Produce Quality and Testing
  • 13.2 Components of Crop Quality
  • 13.3 Quality Improvement
  • 13.4 Cultural Practices to Improve Greenhouse Produce Quality
    • 13.4.1 Nutrient solution electrical conductivity levels, salinity and deficit irrigation
    • 13.4.2 Calcium and potassium and compositional quality
  • 13.5 Environmental Conditions and Produce Quality
    • 13.5.1 Light levels and produce quality
    • 13.5.2 Temperature and produce quality
    • 13.5.3 Nutrient solution chilling
  • 13.6 Genetics and Produce Quality
  • 13.7 Quality Testing and Grading Methods
    • 13.7.1 Colour analysis
    • 13.7.2 Total soluble solids (Brix) testing
    • 13.7.3 Dry weight percentage
    • 13.7.4 Acidity and pH
    • 13.7.5 Flavour quality – aroma and taste
    • 13.7.6 Sensory evaluation of compositional quality
    • 13.7.7 Volatiles testing – aroma
  • 13.8 Nutritional Quality
  • 13.9 Biologically Active Compounds
  • 13.10 Texture and Firmness Quality Assessment
  • 13.11 Microbial Quality and Food Safety
  • 13.12 Mycotoxins and Contaminants
  • 13.13 Heavy Metals and Chemical Contamination
  • 13.14 Naturally Occurring Toxins
  • 13.15 Nitrate in Leafy Greens
  • References
• 14 Harvest and Postharvest Factors
  • 14.1 Harvesting
    • 14.1.1 Harvest maturity
    • 14.1.2 Hand harvesting
    • 14.1.3 Robotic harvesting of greenhouse crops
  • 14.2 Postharvest Handling, Grading and Storage
    • 14.2.1 Pack houses
    • 14.2.2 Washing, cleaning and sanitation
    • 14.2.3 Size and shape grading
    • 14.2.4 Manual grading
    • 14.2.5 Colour sorting and grading
    • 14.2.6 Automated colour and grading systems
    • 14.2.7 Grading other produce – cut flowers
  • 14.3 Fresh-Cut Salad Processing
  • 14.4 Shelf-Life Evaluation
  • 14.5 Packaging
  • 14.6 Postharvest Cooling
  • 14.7 Postharvest Handling Damage
  • 14.8 GAP – Good Agricultural Practices in Postharvest Handling
  • 14.9 Postharvest Storage
    • 14.9.1 Postharvest physiology during storage
    • 14.9.2 Storage systems
    • 14.9.3 Refrigeration and cool storage
    • 14.9.4 Controlled and modified atmosphere storage
    • 14.9.5 Modified atmosphere packaging
  • 14.10 Postharvest Disorders
    • 14.10.1 Temperature injury
    • 14.10.2 Ethylene injury
    • 14.10.3 Other postharvest storage disorders
    • 14.10.4 Storage decay
  • 14.11 Food Safety and Hygiene
  • 14.12 Ready-to-Eat, Minimally Processed Produce
  • 14.13 Certification and Food Safety Systems
    • 14.13.1 Documentation and recall programmes
  • 14.14 Postharvest Developments
  • References
• Index