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Table of Contents
- Preface
- Contents
- 1. General introduction
- 2. Preparation of suspension concentrates by the bottom-up process
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Preparation of suspensions by precipitation
- 2.2.1 Nucleation and growth
- 2.2.2 Precipitation kinetics
- 2.2.3 Seeded nucleation and growth
- 2.2.4 Surface modification
- 2.2.5 Other methods for preparation of suspensions by the bottom-up process
- 2.3 Characterization of suspension particles
- 2.3.1 Visual observations
- 2.3.2 Optical microscopy
- 2.3.3 Electron microscopy
- 2.3.4 Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)
- 2.3.5 Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
- 2.3.6 Scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM)
- 2.3.7 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
- 2.3.8 Scattering techniques
- 2.4 Measurement of charge and zeta potential
- 3. Preparation of suspensions using the top-down process
- 3.1 Wetting of the bulk powder
- 3.2 Breaking of aggregates and agglomerates into individual units
- 3.3 Wet milling or comminution
- 3.4 Stabilization of the suspension during dispersion and milling and the resulting nanosuspension
- 3.5 Prevention of Ostwald ripening (crystal growth)
- 4. Electrostatic stabilization of suspensions
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Structure of the solid/liquid interface
- 4.2.1 Origin of charge on surfaces
- 4.2.2 Specific adsorption of ions
- 4.3 Structure of the electrical double layer
- 4.3.1 Diffuse double layer (Gouy and Chapman)
- 4.3.2 Stern–Grahame model of the double layer
- 4.4 Electrical double layer repulsion
- 4.5 Van der Waals Attraction
- 4.6 Total energy of interaction
- 4.6.1 Deryaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (DLVO) theory
- 4.7 Criteria for stabilization of suspensions with double layer interaction
- 5. Steric stabilization of suspensions
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Adsorption and orientation of nonionic surfactants at the solid/liquid interface
- 5.3 Polymeric surfactant adsorption
- 5.4 Interaction between particles containing adsorbed surfactant layers
- 6. Flocculation of suspensions
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Kinetics of flocculation of electrostatically stabilized suspensions
- 6.2.1 Diffusion limited aggregation (fast flocculation kinetics)
- 6.2.2 Potential limited aggregation (slow flocculation kinetics)
- 6.2.3 Weak (reversible) flocculation
- 6.2.4 Orthokinetic flocculation
- 6.2.5 Aggregate structure
- 6.3 Flocculation of sterically stabilized dispersions
- 6.3.1 Weak flocculation
- 6.3.2 Incipient flocculation
- 6.3.3 Depletion flocculation
- 6.3.4 Bridging flocculation by polymers and polyelectrolytes
- 7. Ostwald ripening in suspensions
- 7.1 Driving force for Ostwald ripening
- 7.2 Kinetics of Ostwald ripening
- 7.3 Thermodynamic theory of crystal growth
- 7.4 Molecular-kinetic theory of crystal growth
- 7.5 The influence of dislocations on crystal growth
- 7.6 Influence of impurities on crystal growth and habit
- 7.7 Polymorphic changes
- 7.8 Crystal growth inhibition
- 8. Sedimentation of suspensions and prevention of formation of dilatant sediments
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Sedimentation rate of suspensions
- 8.2.1 Very dilute suspensions
- 8.2.2 Moderately concentrated suspensions
- 8.2.3 Concentrated suspensions
- 8.2.4 Sedimentation of flocculated suspensions
- 8.2.5 Sedimentation in non-Newtonian fluids
- 8.3 Prevention of sedimentation and formation of dilatant sediments
- 8.3.1 Balance of the density of the disperse phase and medium
- 8.3.2 Reduction of particle size
- 8.3.3 Use of high molecular weight thickeners
- 8.3.4 Use of “inert” fine particles
- 8.3.5 Use of mixtures of polymers and finely divided particulate solids
- 8.3.6 Controlled flocculation (“self-structured” systems)
- 8.3.7 Depletion flocculation
- 8.3.8 Use of liquid crystalline phases
- 9. Rheology of suspensions
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Rheological techniques
- 9.2.1 Steady state measurements
- 9.2.2 Rheological models for analysis of flow curves
- 9.2.3 Time effects during flow – thixotropy and negative (or anti-) thixotropy
- 9.2.4 Constant stress (creep) measurements
- 9.2.5 Dynamic (oscillatory) measurements
- 9.3 Rheology of suspensions
- 9.3.1 Dilute suspensions (? = 0.01) – the Einstein equation
- 9.3.2 Moderately concentrated suspensions (0.2 > ? > 0.01) – the Bachelor equation
- 9.3.3 Rheology of concentrated suspensions
- 10. Nonaqueous suspension concentrates
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Stability of suspensions in polar media
- 10.3 stability of suspensions in nonpolar media
- 10.4 Characterization of the adsorbed polymer layer
- 10.5 Theory of steric stabilization
- 10.6 Criteria for effective steric stabilization
- 10.7 Settling of suspensions and preventing the formation of dilatant sediments
- 10.8 Examples of suspending agents that can be applied for prevention of settling in nonaqueous suspensions
- 10.9 Emulsification of oil-based suspensions
- 10.10 Mechanism of spontaneous emulsification and the role of mixed surfactant film
- 10.11 Polymeric surfactants for oil-based suspensions and the choice of emulsifiers
- 10.12 Emulsification into aqueous electrolyte solutions
- 10.13 Proper choice of the antisettling system
- 10.14 Rheological characteristics of the oil-based suspensions
- 11. Characterization, assessment and prediction of stability of suspensions
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 Assessment of the structure of the solid/liquid interface
- 11.2.1 Double layer investigation
- 11.3 Measurement of surfactant and polymer adsorption
- 11.4 Assessment of sedimentation of suspensions
- 11.5 Assessment of flocculation and Ostwald ripening (crystal growth)
- 11.5.1 Optical microscopy
- 11.5.2 Sample preparation for optical microscopy
- 11.5.3 Particle size measurements using optical microscopy
- 11.5.4 Electron microscopy
- 11.5.5 Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)
- 11.5.6 Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
- 11.5.7 Scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM)
- 11.5.8 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
- 11.5.9 Scattering techniques
- 11.6 Measurement of rate of flocculation
- 11.7 Measurement of incipient flocculation
- 11.8 Measurement of crystal growth (Ostwald ripening)
- 11.9 Bulk properties of suspensions, equilibrium sediment volume (or height) and redispersion
- 11.10 Application of rheological techniques for the assessment and prediction of the physical stability of suspensions
- 11.10.1 Rheological techniques for prediction of sedimentation and syneresis
- 11.10.2 Role of thickeners
- 11.10.3 Assessment and prediction of flocculation using rheological techniques
- 11.10.4 Examples of application of rheology for assessment and prediction of flocculation
- 12. Application of suspensions in pharmacy
- 12.1 Introduction
- 12.2 Particle size reduction
- 12.3 Dispersion and stabilization of the drug suspension
- 12.4 Colloid stability of pharmaceutical suspensions
- 12.5 Prevention of Ostwald ripening (crystal growth)
- 12.6 Prevention of particle settling and suspension separation
- 12.7 Oral suspensions
- 12.8 Parenteral suspensions
- 12.9 Ophthalmic suspensions
- 12.10 Topical suspensions
- 12.11 Reconstitutable suspensions
- 13. Applications of suspensions in cosmetics and personal care
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Suspensions in sunscreens
- 13.3 Suspensions in colour cosmetics
- 13.4 Lipsticks and lip balms
- 13.5 Nail polish
- 13.6 Antiperspirants and deodorants
- 13.7 Foundations
- 13.8 Liquid detergents
- 14. Application of suspensions in paints and coatings
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 The disperse particles
- 14.3 The dispersion medium and film formers
- 14.4 Deposition of particles and their adhesion to the substrate
- 14.5 Flow characteristics (rheology) of paints
- 15. Application of suspensions in agrochemicals
- 15.1 Introduction
- 15.2 Preparation of suspension concentrates and the role of surfactants/dispersing agents
- 15.3 Control of the physical stability of agrochemical suspension concentrates
- 15.4 Ostwald ripening (crystal growth)
- 15.5 Stability against claying or caking
- Index
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