This publication presents the results of the collaborative research, commencing with a report on the collection of a broad range of genetic material of fodder potential in Belize, the Yucatan and Guatemala, the initial evaluation of some of this material in Belize and a brief review of the impact of the collection on forage development over the past 30 years (Chapter 2); in fact this germplasm collection stimulated much of the work reported in this volume. An analysis of the value and potential of Stylosanthes genetic material adapted to heavy clay soils follows. This study mainly focuses on S. hamata and its relatives, and is based in part on collections made concurrently in the Caribbean islands and South America as part of the collaborative programme (Chapter 3). The Belize collections of Desmanthus species stimulated interest in the genus and based on those collections and others made later by other collectors, studies were undertaken on the potential of the genus generally, and specifically for its potential for development for heavy clay soils (Chapters 4 and 5). Chapters 6 through 9 report on the steps undertaken to select and test germplasm for adaptation for the heavy clay soils of the dry Australian tropics and subtropics where Desmanthus species were the most successful of those tested. The variation within the genus as related to its distribution and its adaptation to Australian environments is discussed. Chapter 10 provides recent advances in the development of forages for heavy clay soils in Australia. The final series of chapters (11 through 19) describes the Belizean environments for which forage germplasm was being selected and the testing of the regionally collected legume accessions for their adaptation to, and suitability for, pastures on clay soils in a range of environments compared to exotic material.

• Tropical Forage Legumes: Harnessing the Potential of Desmanthus and Other Genera for Heavy Clay Soils
• Copyright
• Contents
• Five Desmanthus species
• Dedication
• List of Line Drawings of Species with Forage Potential
• Foreword
• The authors
• Contributors to the research
• Acknowledgements
  • Contributions to this book
  • Australian/international studies (Bob Burt†)
  • The Belize studies (John Lazier)
  • The Queensland studies: Chapter 11, the Progardes story (Chris Gardiner)
• 1: Providing Pasture and Ley Legumes for Use on Clay Soils in Tropical and Subtropical Environments
  • The organization of the volume
• 2: The Collection and Initial Evaluation of a Wide Range of Pasture Legumes From Mexico, Belize and Guatemala: Implications for Genetic Resource Development for Tropical Countries
  • Abstract
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Materials and methods
    • 2.2.1 Collection sites
    • 2.2.2 Climatic comparisons
    • 2.2.3 Edaphic conditions at the collecting sites
    • 2.2.4 Agronomic testing
      • Plant material
      • The site
      • Experimental design and plant culture
  • 2.3 Results and preliminary discussion
    • 2.3.1 Climatic analysis
    • 2.3.2 Environmental effects on the distribution of the various legume species
    • 2.3.3 Environmental tolerance of cultivars
    • 2.3.4 Agronomic evaluation
      • Performance patterns
    • 2.3.5 Predicting the likely utility of the Central Farm germplasm collection
  • 2.4 General discussion
    • 2.4.1 Examples from the genus Desmanthus:agronomic development
    • 2.4.2 Contribution of the UWI/IDR Ccollections to global germplasm collections
      • Desmanthus and Stylosanthes as examples
      • Other species that warrant further study
  • 2.4.3 The significance of the UWI/IDRC collection
  • Appendix 2.2
• 3: Developing and Utilizing Genetic Resource Collections: An Example From the Tropical Leguminous Genus Stylosanthes
  • Abstract
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Experimental work
    • 3.2.1 Aims
    • 3.2.2 Choice of material: background information
  • 3.3 Experimental methods and observations taken
    • 3.3.1 Data analysis
  • 3.4 Results: the hierarchical classification
    • 3.4.1 Definition of the groups
    • 3.4.2 Adjustment of the groups
  • 3.5 Preliminary discussion
    • 3.5.1 Choice of accessions to be studied in the MST analysis
    • 3.5.2 Positioning of the various species, and types within species, in the classification
    • 3.5.3 Treatment of the annual/biennial species in the readjusted groups (N 8 to 17) S. subsericea
      • S. humilis
    • 3.5.4 The allotetraploid S. hamata sensu lato
      • S. hamata sensu stricto
  • 3.6 The minimum spanning tree: results
    • 3.6.1 The MST: preliminary discussion
      • Positioning of the species and species types
      • Comparing the results of the MST and the hierarchical classification: misclassifications in the latter
      • Using the MST: some worked examples
  • 3.7 General discussion
    • 3.7.1 The adequacy of genetic resource collections with especial reference to S. hamata and S. scabra
      • S. hamata
      • S. scabra
      • The S. scabra–S. sp. aff. hamata W–S. sp. aff. scabra–S. seabrana–S. viscosa complex
    • 3.7.2 Classification of plants in genetic resource collections
      • Classical taxonomy
      • Numerical taxonomy
      • Use of other methodologies, such as chemotaxonomy
    • 3.7.3 Using an ecologically based approach to the collection and evaluation of genetic resource material
  • Appendix 3.1: Accessions used in the experiment
  • Appendix 3.2: Location of the various accessions on the MST
  • Appendix 3.3: Comparing results based on the hierarchical classification and the MST
  • Appendix 3.4: Developing the S. scabra genepool: a brief review and suggestions for targeted collection
  • 3.8 Appendix 3.5: Effects of soils and soil characteristics on the distribution and growth of tropical herbaceous legumes on the island of Antigua: with special reference to S. hamata sensu stricto
• 4: Desmanthus, a Tropical and Subtropical Forage Legume: Developing Germplasm Resources for More Subtropical and High Altitude Environments
  • Abstract
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Environmental tolerance of individual genotypes: examples drawn from D. virgatus
  • 4.3 High altitude/latitude collections of Desmanthus in the ATFGRC germplasm bank
    • 4.3.1 South America
      • Major collecting zones
      • Species/environmental relationships in higher altitude/latitude zones
    • 4.3.2 Central and North America
    • 4.3.3 Mexico
    • 4.3.4 The USA
  • 4.4 Homologous high altitude/high latitude situations in Argentina, Mexico, Australia, Ethiopia and the USA
    • 4.4.1 Comparisons based on the use of suites of crops
    • 4.4.2 Floristic/agronomic comparisons
      • Using floristic data from highland conditions in tropical East Africa
      • Using plant introduction/evaluation data from Australia
  • 4.5 Discussion
• 5: A Numerical Analysis of Variation Patterns in the Genus Desmanthus: An Exploratory Study
  • Abstract
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Materials and methods
    • 5.2.1 Experimental methods
    • 5.2.2 Numerical methods
  • 5.3 Results
    • 5.3.1 Validation and reinforcement of the groupings
      • Taxonomic studies
      • Individual comparisons of accessions
      • Variation within selected groups of D. virgatus
      • Variation within D. pernambucanus
  • 5.4 Discussion
• 6: Searching for Pasture Legumes for Heavy Clay Soils in the Australian Dry Tropics and Subtropics: I. Initial Literature Reviews, Data Analysis and Choice of Material for Test
  • Abstract
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 The review
    • 6.2.1 Distribution of the various genera and species in relation to soil type
  • 6.3 General characteristics of the genera of interest
    • 6.3.1 Group A Indigofera and Crotalaria
    • 6.3.2 Group B
    • 6.3.3 Group C
    • 6.3.4 Group D
    • 6.3.5 Group E
    • 6.3.6 Group F
  • 6.4 Discussion
• 7: Searching for Pasture Legumes for Heavy Clay Soils in the Australian Dry Tropics and Subtropics: II. Ancillary Floristic, Climatic and Edaphic Studies
  • Abstract
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Climatic studies
    • 7.2.1 Methodology
    • 7.2.2 Results
      • The possible significance of sites in the New World tropics and subtropics
  • 7.3 Edaphic studies
    • 7.3.1 General edaphic study
      • Methodologies
      • Results
    • 7.3.2 Edaphic conditions and legume distribution in Antigua
      • Methodologies
      • Results
  • 7.4 Floristic studies
    • 7.4.1 Methods
    • 7.4.2 Results
  • 7.5 Preliminary discussion
    • 7.5.1 Climatic analyses
    • 7.5.2 Edaphic analyses
    • 7.5.3 Floristic studies
  • 7.6 General discussion
    • 7.6.1 Introduction
    • 7.6.2 Choosing material for import
    • 7.6.3 Choosing material for test: other considerations
      • Stylosanthes and Desmanthus
• 8: Searching for Pasture Legumes for Heavy Clay Soils in the Australian Dry Tropics and Subtropics: III. The Initial Evaluation of Introduced Material
  • Abstract
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Experimental methods
  • 8.3 Results and preliminary discussion
    • 8.3.1 From Alligator Creek, Lansdown and Hillgrove
    • 8.3.2 From the Lansdown clay soil site
      • Survival of the original transplants
      • Invasion of plot rows
      • Seed, seedling production, ability to hold leaf into the dry season and ability to spread outside the area into non-disturbed, ‘natural grassland’
      • Summary
  • 8.4 General discussion: pasture legumes for clay soils in dry tropical conditions
  • 8.5 The initial survey
  • 8.6 Choice of material for study
  • 8.7 Methods of evaluation
    • 8.7.1 Classification
    • 8.7.2 Evaluation
    • 8.7.3 Data analysis and interpretation
    • 8.7.4 Use of provenance records
  • Appendix 8.1
  • Appendix 8.2: Provenance records: their possible use in suggesting plant utility
• 9: Searching for Pasture Legumes for Heavy Clay Soils in the Australian Dry Tropics and Subtropics: IV. Evaluation in Western Queensland
  • Abstract
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Methods
    • 9.2.1 Sites and long-term climatic conditions
    • 9.2.2 Plant material
    • 9.2.3 Evaluation methods
    • 9.2.4 Climate conditions and measurements taken
  • 9.3 Results and preliminary discussion
    • 9.3.1 Preliminary considerations
      • Performance of non-Desmanthus accessions
      • Performance of Desmanthus accessions
      • Experiment 11
    • 9.3.2 Summary and preliminary discussion
  • 9.4 Discussion
    • 9.4.1 Preliminary considerations
    • 9.4.2 The demonstrated potential of Desmanthus
    • 9.4.3 Characterizing Desmanthus
    • 9.4.4 Development and utilization of genetic resource collections in Desmanthus
      • Commercial development of cultivars using our existing knowledge
      • Use of the existing ATFGRC germplasm collection
    • 9.4.5 Strategic research
      • Efficient classification
      • Feeding value of the seed
      • Feeding value of the vegetative growth
      • Ecological understanding
    • 9.4.6 The future development of Desmanthus collections
  • Appendix 9.1: Selecting Desmanthus accessions for use in the experiment
  • Appendix 9.2: Details of experimental methods
    • GRAZNET experiments
    • Small sward experiments
    • Transplant experiments
  • Appendix 9.3: Climates at points of collection and evaluation
  • Appendix 9.4: Performance of non-Desmanthus accessions in western Queensland
  • Appendix 9.5: Performance characteristics of Desmanthus accessions in western Queensland
    • Transplant experiments (numbers 11, 12 and 13, Table 9.3)
• 10: Recent Development and Commercial Adoption of Legumes for Heavy Clay Soils in Queensland
  • Abstract
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Preamble: potential legume germplasm for clay soils based on early research
  • 10.3 Development of legumes for clay soils during the 1990s
  • 10.3.1 The first cultivars of legumes for clay soils
  • 10.4 Refining the types and management of legumes for clay soils
  • 10.5 The Legumes for Clay Soils project
  • 10.6 Stylosanthes seabrana, an emerging legume for clay soils
  • 10.7 Other legumes for clay soils
  • 10.8 Ley pastures on clay soils in Queensland
  • 10.9 Legumes for clay soils beyond 2000
  • 10.10 Recent research activity
  • 10.11 Genetic resources
  • 10.12 Conclusions
• 11: Developing and Commercializing New Pasture Legumes for Clay Soils in the Semi-arid Rangelands of Northern Australia: The New Desmanthus Cultivars JCU 1–5 and the Progardes Story
  • Abstract
  • 11.1 Introduction and background: setting the scene for legume introduction into tropical/subtropical semi-arid clay soil areas of northern Australia
    • 11.1.1 The Mitchell Grass Downs
    • 11.1.2 The Brigalow Region
    • 11.1.3 Importance of plant persistence
    • 11.1.4 Acceptability to graziers
    • 11.1.5 Legumes tested
  • 11.2 The history and development of ‘Progardes Desmanthus’ (cultivars JCU 1–5)
    • 11.2.1 Cultivar JCU 1 (D. leptophyllus)
    • 11.2.2 Cultivar JCU 2 (D. virgatus)
    • 11.2.3 Cultivar JCU 3 (D. virgatus)
    • 11.2.4 Cultivar JCU 4 (D. bicornutus)
    • 11.2.5 Cultivar JCU 5 (D. virgatus)
  • 11.3 Agronomic and production experiences with Progardes
    • 11.3.1 Establishment
    • 11.3.2 Persistence in buffel grass stands
    • 11.3.3 Inoculation
    • 11.3.4 Animal production
    • 11.3.5 Nutritive value and seeds
    • 11.3.6 Other uses
      • Anthelmintic
      • Hay
      • Antimethanogenic potential
      • Green manure
      • Ecological potential
  • 11.4 Conclusions
• 12: The Cattle Industry of Belize: A Brief History of Research and Development to the Mid-1970s
  • Abstract
  • 12.1 Introduction
  • 12.2 Early settlement years
    • 12.2.1 The 1930s
    • 12.2.2 The 1940s
    • 12.2.3 The 1950s
    • 12.2.4 1960s
    • 12.2.5 1970s
  • 12.3 Conclusion
• 13; Botanical Composition and Nutritive Value of Selected Native Pastures in Belize
  • Abstract
  • 13.1 Introduction
  • 13.2 Methods
    • 13.2.1 The trial sites
    • 13.2.2 Sampling
  • 13.3 Results and discussion
    • 13.3.1 Dry matter yields
    • 13.3.2 Botanical composition
    • 13.3.3 Plant nutrient analyses
  • 13.4 Conclusions
  • Appendix 13.1: Botanical analyses and yields
• 14: Single Plant Trials of Potential Forage Legumes for Belizean Pastures on Clay Soils of the Upper Belize River and the Lowland Pine Ridge
  • Abstract
  • 14.1 Introduction
  • 14.2 Methods
  • 14.3 Results and discussion
    • 14.3.1 The Central Farm site
    • 14.3.2 The Low Pine Ridge site
    • 14.3.3 Relative productivity at the two sites
  • 14.4 Conclusions
• 15: Forage Legume Adaptation Strip Trials in Belize
  • Abstract
  • 15.1 Introduction
  • 15.2 Methods
    • 15.2.1 Analysis
  • 15.3 Upper Belize River Valley sites
    • 15.3.1 Introduction
    • 15.3.2 Trial sites in the upper Belize Valley
      • Site 1 Norland Farm
      • Site 2 Norland Farm
      • Site 3 San Lorenzo (Don Santiago Juan Farm)
      • Site 14 Central Farm
      • Site 4 Orange Walk Estate
      • Site 10 Spanish Lookout (Klaas Freisan Farm)
      • Site 15 National Show Grounds
    • 15.3.3 Results and discussion upper Belize Valley
    • 15.3.4 Analysis of results
      • Site 1 Norland Farm, Hyparrhenia rufa (Fig. 15.3a)
      • Site 2 Norland Farm, Pennisetum purpureum cv. Merker grass (Fig. 15.3b)
      • Site 3 San Lorenzo (Don Santiago Juan’s farm) H. rufa pasture (Fig. 15.1)
      • Site 14 Central Farm, Cynodon nlemfluensis (African Star grass) (Fig. 15.4)
      • Site 10 Spanish Lookout Klaas Fresian Farm, Digitaria eriantha (Pangola) (Fig. 15.5)
      • Site 4 Orange Walk, native pasture (Fig. 15.6)
      • Site 15 Agricultural Show Grounds, various exotic grasses (Fig. 15.7)
    • 15.3.5 Summary of the upper Belize River Valley results
  • 15.4 Low Pine Ridge sites
    • 15.4.1 Introduction
    • 15.4.2 Trial sites on the Low Pine Ridge
      • Sites 5 and 6, mile 33 Western Highway
      • Sites 7, 8 and 9, mile 35 Western Highway, Gulf American Property
    • 15.4.3 Results and discussion Low Pine Ridge sites
  • 15.5 Mountain Pine Ridge sites
    • 15.5.1 Introduction
      • History
      • Geology
      • Climate
      • Soils
      • Vegetation
      • Grasses
      • Potential for livestock raising
    • 15.5.2 Trial sites on the Mountain Pine Ridge
      • Site 11 Bull Run Ranch (Fig. 15.13)
      • Site 12 Rio On Ridge (Fig. 15.14)
      • Site 13 Baldy Beacon (Fig. 15.15)
    • 15.5.3 Results and discussion Mountain Pine Ridge sites
    • 15.5.4 Persistence of the plantings: observations in 1981
  • 15.6 General discussion
  • 15.7 Conclusions
  • Appendix 15.1: Soil analysis results
  • Appendix 15.2
• 16: Initial Screening for Persistence and Productivity of 20 Promising Native and Exotic Pasture Legume Species in Two Productive Contrasting Forage Grasses in Belize
  • Abstract
  • 16.1 Introduction
    • 16.1.1 The environment
  • 16.2 Methods
    • 16.2.1 Analysis
  • 16.3 Results and discussion
  • 16.4 Conclusions
  • Appendix 16.1
• 17: Productivity of 16 Forage Legumes Under Cutting in Belize on Contrasting Soils: a High Alluvial Terrace and A Lowland Pine Savanna I. Dry Matter Yields
  • Abstract
  • 17.1 Introduction
  • 17.2 Methods
  • 17.3 Results and discussion
    • 17.3.1 The high terrace site
      • Legumes
      • Grasses and weeds
    • 17.3.2 The savanna site
      • Legumes
      • Grass
      • Weeds
    • 17.3.3 Relative productivity in the two pasture environments
      • Legumes
      • Grasses
      • Weeds
• 18: Productivity of 16 Forage Legumes in Mixed Swards Under Cutting in Belize on Contrasting Soils: a High Alluvial Terrace and A Lowland Pine Savanna II. Nutrient Levels and Feeding Value
  • Abstract
  • 18.1 Introduction
  • 18.2 Methods
  • 18.3 Results
    • 18.3.1 Nitrogen
    • 18.3.2 Phosphorous
    • 18.3.3 Potassium
    • 18.3.4 Calcium
    • 18.3.5 Magnesium
    • 18.3.6 Manganese
    • 18.3.7 Copper
    • 18.3.8 Zinc
    • 18.3.9 Sulphur
  • 18.4 Discussion
    • 18.4.1 The savanna site
    • 18.4.2 The high river terrace
• 19: A Summary of the Results of the IDRC-UWI/Belize Forage Legume Adaptation and Productivity Trials, 1973–1977
  • Abstract
  • 19.1 Introduction
  • 19.2 Methods
  • 19.3 Results and discussion
• References
• Index