This book, containing 20 chapters, deals with almond taxonomy, morphology, physiology, cultivation history, production, breeding (classical and molecular), cultivar development, genomics, pollen-style (in)compatibility, rootstock development, propagation, orchard management, environmental and water requirements, nutrition, diseases, pests, harvesting, chemical composition, marketing, processing and industrialization.

• Almonds: Botany, Production and Uses
• Copyright
• Contents
• About the Editors
• Contributors
• Preface
• Dedications
• 1: Taxonomy, Botany and Physiology
  • 1.1 Almond Taxonomy
  • 1.2 Wild Almond Species
  • 1.3 Almond Morphology
    • 1.3.1 Root
    • 1.3.2 Canopy
    • 1.3.3 Bud and flower
    • 1.3.4 Fruit
    • 1.3.5 Kernel
  • 1.4 Reproductive Physiology
    • 1.4.1 Flower initiation
    • 1.4.2 Blooming
    • 1.4.3 Pollination
    • 1.4.4 Fertilization
    • 1.4.5 Fruit development
  • 1.5 Vegetative Growth
  • References
• 2: History of Cultivation
  • 2.1 Prehistoric Evidence
  • 2.2 Wild Badam
  • 2.3 Historical and Cultural References
  • 2.4 Greek Nut Cultivation
  • 2.5 Old World Dissemination
    • 2.5.1 Asiatic stage
    • 2.5.2 Mediterranean stage
  • 2.6 New World Dissemination
  • 2.7 Modern Cultivation
    • 2.7.1 Mediterranean
    • 2.7.2 California
    • 2.7.3 Eastern Europe and Asia
  • 2.8 Conclusions
  • References
• 3: Production and Growing Regions
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Almond Production
    • 3.2.1 Asia and eastern Europe
    • 3.2.2 Mediterranean
      • 3.2.2.1 Spanish production
      • 3.2.2.2 Other Mediterranean countries
    • 3.2.3 New World
  • 3.3 Production Trends
  • References
• 4: Almond in the Southern Hemisphere
  • 4.1 The Australian Almond Story
    • 4.1.1 History
    • 4.1.2 Production in Australia
    • 4.1.3 Cultivation
    • 4.1.4 Industry support and research
    • 4.1.5 Pests and diseases in Australian almonds
    • 4.1.6 Future prospects
  • 4.2 Almonds in Argentina
    • 4.2.1 History
    • 4.2.2 Production in Argentina
    • 4.2.3 Development of the industry
      • Disadvantages
      • Advantages
    • 4.2.4 Cultivars in use
    • 4.2.5 Statistics
  • 4.3 Almonds in Chile
    • 4.3.1 History
    • 4.3.2 Almond-producing areas
    • 4.3.3 Cultivars in use
    • 4.3.4 Development of the industry
      • Strengths
      • Weaknesses
      • Opportunities
      • Threats
    • 4.3.5 Statistics
  • 4.4 Almonds in South Africa
  • References
• 5: Classical Genetics and Breeding
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Germplasm
  • 5.3 Breeding Programmes: Objectives and Achievements
  • 5.4 Genetics
    • 5.4.1 Ploidy and genome size
    • 5.4.2 Qualitative characters and their inheritance
      • Self-incompatibility
      • Kernel bitterness
    • 5.4.3 Quantitative characters
      • Characters related to the nut
      • Nut hull
      • Shell hardness and percentage of kernel
      • Kernel (shape, size and weight)
      • Shell and kernel colour
      • Kernel pellicle and texture
      • Double kernel
      • Twin kernel
      • Characters related to the tree
      • Vigour
      • Tree growth and bearing habit
      • Foliage
      • Time of maturity
      • Flowering characteristics
      • Flower type
      • Flower density
      • Flowering time
      • Fruit set
      • Cold hardiness
      • Disease and pest resistance
  • 5.5 Breeding
    • 5.5.1 Objectives
    • 5.5.2 Floral biology and selection cycles
      • Interspecific hybridization
    • 5.5.3 Methodology
      • Parental choice and cross design
      • Crossing and growing seedlings
      • Seedling evaluation and selection
      • Early selection
      • Marker-assisted selection
  • 5.6 Breeding Prospects
  • References
• 6: Molecular Breeding and Genomics
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Genetic Markers in Plant Breeding
  • 6.3 Introduction to Marker-assisted Breeding
  • 6.4 Almond Breeding and Molecular Markers
    • 6.4.1 MAS in almond: state of the art
    • 6.4.2 MAI
    • 6.4.3 Molecular tools in breeding (QTL versus AM)
      • QTLs in almond
      • AM in almond
    • 6.4.4 Important traits well studied at the molecular level: bitterness
  • 6.5 SNP Markers and HRM as Promising New Tools for Molecular Breeding
  • 6.6 Impact of New Technologies
  • 6.7 Conclusion
  • References
• 7: Late-blooming Cultivar Development
  • 7.1 The Importance of Flowering Time in Wild and Cultivated Almonds
    • 7.1.1 Flowering time of wild almonds
    • 7.1.2 Flowering time of cultivated almonds
  • 7.2 Variability of Flowering Time in Almond
  • 7.3 Genetic Control of Flowering Time
    • 7.3.1 The flowering process
    • 7.3.2 Heritability and environmental influence
    • 7.3.3 Correlation with other characteristics
    • 7.3.4 Genomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics of flowering time
  • 7.4 Breeding for Flowering Time
    • 7.4.1 Breeding methods
    • 7.4.2 The juvenile period and early selection methods
      • Early selection of flowering time as a function of chilling requirements of the seeds obtained from crosses
      • Selecting early-flowering time depending on the time of leafing
    • 7.4.3 New late-flowering cultivars
    • 7.4.4 Limitations in the delay of flowering time
  • 7.5 The Impact of Climate Change on the Flowering of Almonds
  • 7.6 Conclusions
  • References
• 8: Pollen–Style (In)compatibility: Development of Autogamous Cultivars
  • 8.1 Almond Self-incompatibility
  • 8.2 Almond Self-compatibility
  • 8.3 Genetics of Self-compatibility
    • 8.3.1 Historical
    • 8.3.2 Inbreeding effects on self-compatibility
    • 8.3.3 RNAse activity
    • 8.3.4 Mapping
    • 8.3.5 Allele identification by PCR
    • 8.3.6 Allele sequencing
    • 8.3.7 The pollen component of self-incompatibility
    • 8.3.8 The double expression of the S f allele
    • 8.3.9 Origin of self-compatibility
    • 8.3.10 Partial self-compatibility
  • 8.4 Breeding Autogamous Cultivars
  • 8.5 Conclusion
  • References
• 9: Rootstock Development
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Selection Criteria for Almond Rootstocks
    • 9.2.1 Nursery characteristics
    • 9.2.2 Graft compatibility
    • 9.2.3 Orchard characteristics
    • 9.2.4 Resistance to biotic and abiotic factors
    • 9.2.5 Good sanitary status
  • 9.3 Characteristics of the Almond Rootstocks
    • 9.3.1 Seedlings
      • Almond seedlings
      • Peach seedlings
    • 9.3.2 Clonal rootstocks
      • Plum as almond rootstock
      • Prunus interspecific hybrids
      • Clones of peach × almond hybrids in use
      • Other Prunus hybrids in use
      • Hybrids between different species of Prunus
  • 9.4 Almond Rootstock Breeding Programmes
    • 9.4.1 Almond rootstock development in Europe
    • 9.4.2 Almond rootstock development in the USA
  • 9.5 Final Outlook
  • References
• 10: Propagation Techniques
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Seedling Propagation
    • 10.2.1 Seed germination
    • 10.2.2 Seed stratification
  • 10.3 Vegetative Propagation
    • 10.3.1 Semi-hardwood cuttings
      • Mist propagation
      • Double tunnel system
    • 10.3.2 Hardwood leafless cuttings
      • Bottom heat
    • 10.3.3 In vitro plant production
      • Rootstock production by in vitro culture
      • Production of grafted plants
  • 10.4 Scion Propagation in Almond
    • 10.4.1 Budding
      • T-budding
      • Chip budding
      • Season for budding
    • 10.4.2 Regrafting
  • References
• 11: Orchard Management
  • 11.1 Introduction
  • 11.2 Orchard Planting
    • 11.2.1 Previous steps
    • 11.2.2 Planting design
    • 11.2.3 Planting
    • 11.2.4 Post-planting care
  • 11.3 Training and Pruning Systems
    • 11.3.1 How pruning works
    • 11.3.2 Training young trees
      • At planting and during the first growing season
    • 11.3.3 Pruning mature trees
    • 11.3.4 Pruning equipment
  • 11.4 Soil Management
  • References
• 12: Environmental Requirements
  • 12.1 Almond and Environment
  • 12.2 Light
  • 12.3 Temperature
    • 12.3.1 Cold hardiness and dormancy
    • 12.3.2 Spring frosts and protection
    • 12.3.3 Flower bud and fruit development
  • 12.4 Rains
    • 12.4.1 Untimely rains
    • 12.4.2 Deficiency and excess of rains
  • 12.5 Soil Properties Limiting Almond Production
  • References
• 13: Almond Water Requirements
  • 13.1 Introduction
  • 13.2 Impacts on Almond Growth and Yield
  • 13.3 Impacts on Vegetative Growth
  • 13.4 Impacts on In-season Kernel Development
  • 13.5 Impacts on Development of Fruit Buds
  • 13.6 Managing Orchard Irrigation in Water-limited Environments
  • 13.7 Additional Factors and Considerations of Water Management
    • 13.7.1 Effects of crop load
    • 13.7.2 Negative effects of canopy reduction
    • 13.7.3 Increasing soil salinity from reduced water quantity or quality
    • 13.7.4 Cultivar influences on water requirements
    • 13.7.5 Micro-irrigation systems and timing of water applications
    • 13.7.6 Reduction of water losses through evaporation
    • 13.7.7 Removal of the cover crop
    • 13.7.8 Minimal impacts of anti-transpirants
    • 13.7.9 Reduction in nitrogen applications
    • 13.7.10 Insect management
  • References
• 14: Almond Tree Nutrition
  • 14.1 Introduction
  • 14.2 Diagnostic Methods
    • 14.2.1 Soil analysis
      • Sampling procedures
      • Laboratory analysis
      • Interpreting the results
      • Soil pH
      • Soil salinity
    • 14.2.2 Plant tissue analysis
      • Critical values
      • Sampling procedure and seasonal changes in nutrient concentrations
      • Field sampling strategies
      • Sampling and analysing for boron
      • Preparation and analysis in the laboratory
      • Interpretation of results
    • 14.2.3 Visual diagnosis of nutrient status
  • 14.3 Management Strategies for Specific Elements
    • 14.3.1 Nitrogen and potassium
      • The nitrogen cycle
      • Nitrogen transformation into nitrate in soils
      • Losses of nitrogen from an almond orchard
      • Potassium cycle
      • Nitrogen and potassium uptake by plants
  • 14.4 The 4Rs of Nutrient Management
    • 14.4.1 Sources of nitrogen and potassium fertilizer: right source
      • Nitrogen
      • Potassium
    • 14.4.2 Fertilizer application methods: right placement
    • 14.4.3 Fertilizer application methods: right rate and right time
      • Establish annual orchard-specific N management
      • Manage N applications to ensure that applied N is retained in the active root zone, and minimize N leaching below the root zone
  • 14.5 Nitrogen Guidelines
  • 14.6 Potassium Guidelines
  • 14.7 Nitrogen Inputs from Irrigation Water
  • 14.8 Monitoring Leaf Nutrient Status
  • 14.9 Integrated Nitrogen Budgeting, Early-season Leaf Sampling and In-season Nitrogen Management
  • 14.10 Occurrence, Identification and Correction of Common Nutrient Disorders
    • 14.10.1 Nitrogen
    • 14.10.2 Potassium
    • 14.10.3 Magnesium
    • 14.10.4 Zinc
    • 14.10.5 Boron
    • 14.10.6 Copper
    • 14.10.7 Iron
    • 14.10.8 Manganese
  • 14.11 Nutrient Toxicities
    • 14.11.1 Boron toxicity
    • 14.11.2 Chloride and sodium toxicity
  • References
• 15: Almond Diseases
  • 15.1 Introduction
  • 15.2 Graft-transmissible Pathogens: Viruses, Viroids and Phytoplasmas
    • 15.2.1 Introduction
    • 15.2.2 Ilarviruses
    • 15.2.3 Nepoviruses
    • 15.2.4 Trichoviruses
    • 15.2.5 Phytoplasmas
    • 15.2.6 Other graft-transmissible pathogens
    • 15.2.7 Diagnosis, detection and control
  • 15.3 Bacterial Diseases
    • 15.3.1 Introduction
    • 15.3.2 Crown gall disease (Agrobacterium spp.; syn. Rhizobium spp.)
    • 15.3.3 Hyperplastic bacterial canker of almond (Pseudomonas amygdali)
    • 15.3.4 Bacterial canker and bacterial blast of stone fruits (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae)
    • 15.3.5 Bacterial spot of almond (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni)
    • 15.3.6 Almond leaf scorch (Xylella fastidiosa)
  • 15.4 Diseases Caused by Fungi and Fungi-like Organisms
    • 15.4.1 Introduction
    • 15.4.2 Flower, foliage and fruit diseases
      • Brown rot blossom blight (Monilinia spp.)
      • Jacket rot and green fruit rot (Botrytis cinerea, Monilinia spp., Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)
      • Anthracnose (Colletotrichum acutatum)
      • Shot hole (Wilsonomyces carpophilus; syn. Thyrostroma carpophilum)
      • Scab (Fusicladium carpophilum; syn. Cladosporium carpophilum)
      • Rust (Tranzschelia discolor)
      • Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria spp.)
      • Red leaf blotch (Polystigma amygdalinum)
      • Almond leaf curl (Taphrina deformans)
      • Hull rot (Monilinia fructicola, Rhizopus sp., Aspergillus niger)
      • Leaf blight (Seimatosporium lichenicola)
    • 15.4.3 Trunk and scaffold diseases
      • Ceratocystis canker (Ceratocystis fimbriata)
      • Band canker (Botryosphaeria dothidea)
      • Silver leaf disease and other wood decays (Chondrostereum purpureum, Laetiporus sulphureus, Lenzites betulina, Oxyporus latemarginatus, Perenniporia spp., Phellinus spp., Schizophyllum commune, Stereum spp., Trametes spp.).
    • 15.4.4 Root and crown diseases
      • Phytophthora diseases (Phytophthora spp.)
      • Armillaria root rot (Armillaria mellea)
      • Rosellinia white root rot (Rosellinia necatrix)
      • Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae)
  • 15.5 Nematodes
    • 15.5.1 Introduction
    • 15.5.2 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
    • 15.5.3 Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.)
    • 15.5.4 Ectoparasitic nematodes
      • Xiphinema spp.
      • Nepovirus diseases
      • Mesocriconema xenoplax
  • 15.6 Disorders with Unknown Aetiologies
  • 15.7 Concluding Remarks and Outlooks
  • References
• 16: Almond Pests
  • 16.1 Introduction
  • 16.2 Arthropod Pests and Their Management in Almond Orchards
    • 16.2.1 Introduction
    • 16.2.2 Early-season Nut Feeders
      • Lepidoptera
      • Hemiptera
      • Hymenoptera
    • 16.2.3 Pre-harvest nut feeders
      • Navel orangeworm
      • Carob moth
      • Peach twig borer
      • Oriental fruit moth
      • Sap beetles
      • Ants
    • 16.2.4 Post-harvest nut feeders
    • 16.2.5 Foliar feeders
      • Mites
      • Aphids
      • Lace bugs, leafhoppers and sharpshooters
    • 16.2.6 Branch, limb or trunk feeders
      • Scales and mealybugs
      • Bark beetles
      • Tree borers
    • 16.2.7 Root-feeding insects
      • Mediterranean flathead root borer
      • Scarabs
    • 16.2.8 Soils, floor management and their effects on arthropod pests
    • 16.2.9 A season-long arthropod management approach
  • 16.3 Vertebrate Pest Management
    • 16.3.1 Introduction
    • 16.3.2 Legal aspects of vertebrate pest management
    • 16.3.3 Vertebrate species of concern
      • Burrowing rodents
      • Tree squirrels
      • Hares and rabbits
      • Deer
      • Wild pigs
      • Birds
  • References
• 17: Almond Harvesting
  • 17.1 Introduction
  • 17.2 Optimal Harvesting Time
  • 17.3 Definition of the Time for Beginning Harvest
  • 17.4 Traditional Mediterranean Harvesting Systems
    • 17.4.1 Ground picking
    • 17.4.2 Hand knocking and use of mesh
  • 17.5 Harvesting Steps
    • 17.5.1 Floor preparation
    • 17.5.2 Picking up naturally fallen nuts in the Mediterranean region
    • 17.5.3 Nut harvest from the tree
      • Manual devices
      • Factors affecting shaking machine efficiency
      • Collection of fallen nuts
      • Transport and hull separation
  • 17.6 Mechanical Harvesting
    • 17.6.1 Nut removal from the tree
    • 17.6.2 Machine types
      • Inertia trunk shakers
      • Other types of harvesters
  • 17.7 Nut Collection and Harvest Efficiency
    • 17.7.1 Nut collection following trunk shaking
    • 17.7.2 Shaker efficiency
    • 17.7.3 Harvesters
  • 17.8 Agronomical Aspects
  • 17.9 Mechanical Damage
  • 17.10 Vibration Transmission
  • 17.11 Conclusions
  • References
• 18: Chemical Composition of Almond Nuts
  • 18.1 Introduction
  • 18.2 Lipid Content and Fatty Acid Profile
  • 18.3 Vitamins
  • 18.4 Phytosterol Content
  • 18.5 Minerals
  • 18.6 Protein and Amino Acids
  • 18.7 Phenols
  • 18.8 Carbohydrates and Fibre
  • 18.9 Hull and Shell Biochemical Constituents
  • References
• 19: World Almond Market
  • 19.1 Introduction
  • 19.2 History and Growth
  • 19.3 Market Structure
    • 19.3.1 Price discovery
    • 19.3.2 Nature of demand
    • 19.3.3 European market trends
    • 19.3.4 The Spanish market
    • 19.3.5 Price elasticity of demand
    • 19.3.6 Nature of supply
    • 19.3.7 Role of the Almond Board of California
    • 19.3.8 The market cycle
    • 19.3.9 Supply, demand and market price
    • 19.3.10 Growers’ marketing decisions and risk management
  • 19.4 Summary
  • Note
  • References
• 20: Processing and Industrialization
  • 20.1 Introduction
  • 20.2 Industrial Preparation
    • 20.2.1 Reception
    • 20.2.2 Cracking
    • 20.2.3 Blanching
  • 20.3 Quality Guidelines for Almond Reception
    • 20.3.1 In-shell almonds
    • 20.3.2 Shelled almonds
    • 20.3.3 Sampling
  • 20.4 Almond Products
    • 20.4.1 Bitter almonds
    • 20.4.2 Appetizers
    • 20.4.3 Industrialization
    • 20.4.4 Turrón
    • 20.4.5 Marzipan
    • 20.4.6 Cakes and pastries
    • 20.4.7 Ice cream
    • 20.4.8 Almond milk
    • 20.4.9 Gastronomy
    • 20.4.10 Cosmetics
    • 20.4.11 Pharmacy
  • Note
• Index