Highlighting the use of biocontrol agents as an alternative to chemical pesticides in the management of plant parasitic nematodes, this book reviews the current progress and developments in the field. Tactful and successful exploitation of each biocontrol agent, i.e. nematophagous fungi, parasitic bacteria, predaceous mites, rhizobacteria, mycorrhiza and predaceous nematodes, has been described separately. The contributors are 23 eminent nematologists and their information has been compiled in 19 chapters.

• Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
• Copyright
• Contents
• Contributors
• Preface
• Part I: Phytonematodes and Biocontrol Agents
  • 1: Impact of Phytonematodes on Agriculture Economy
    • 1.1 Introduction
    • 1.2 The Nature of Phytonematodes
      • 1.2.1 Habitat, taxonomy, biology, parasitism and injury
      • 1.2.2 Sampling, spatial distribution and contribution in the soil food web
    • 1.3 Phytonematode Genera, Species and Races
      • 1.3.1 Economically important plant parasitic nematodes worldwide
      • 1.3.2 Economic thresholds for damage by plant parasitic nematodes
      • 1.3.3 Examples of damage by plant parasiticnematodes
      • 1.3.4 Plant parasitic nematode distribution and population density: implications and management
      • 1.3.5 Progress in molecular and biochemical studies
    • 1.4 Impact of Phytonematodes on World Agriculture
      • 1.4.1 Rationale and methodology
      • 1.4.2 Previous estimates of nematode damage
      • 1.4.3 Our current estimates
      • 1.4.4 The true cost of nematodes
    • 1.5 Challenging Issues Related to the Estimates
      • 1.5.1 Redirections in the type and choice of applicable nematicides
      • 1.5.2 Intensive agriculture system
      • 1.5.3 Climate change
      • 1.5.4 Lag in nematode-genetic manipulation
      • 1.5.5 Quarantine problems
      • 1.5.6 Confusion in identification of some plant parasitic nematode species and races
      • 1.5.7 Discrepancy in nematode technological progress among different countries
      • 1.5.8 Inaction or shift in plant parasitic nematode management
      • 1.5.9 Lack of economically oriented plant-parasitic nematode research
    • 1.6 Resources and Facilities Devoted to Nematology versus Limitations
    • 1.7 Economic Framework of Phytonematodes
    • 1.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 2: Significance of Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 2.1 Introduction
    • 2.2 Nematophagous and Endophytic Fungi
      • 2.2.1 Mode of parasitism
      • 2.2.2 Significance in biocontrol of phytonematodes
    • 2.3 Nematophagous Bacteria
      • 2.3.1 Mode of parasitism
      • 2.3.2 Significance in biocontrol of phytonematodes
    • 2.4 Predatory Nematodes
      • 2.4.1 Mode of parasitism
      • 2.4.2 Significance in biocontrol of phytonematodes
    • 2.5 Predaceous Mites
      • 2.5.1 Mode of parasitism
      • 2.5.2 Significance in biocontrol of phytonematodes
    • 2.6 Viruses
      • 2.6.1 Mode of parasitism
      • 2.6.2 Significance in biocontrol of phytonematodes
    • 2.7 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part II: Nematophagous Fungi
  • 3: Nematophagous Fungi as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 3.1 Introduction
    • 3.2 Nematophagous Fungi
      • 3.2.1 Isolation techniques
      • 3.2.2 Observation of living materials
      • 3.2.3 Temporary and permanent mounts
      • 3.2.4 Identification
    • 3.3 Nematode-trapping Fungi
      • 3.3.1 Taxonomy and morphology
      • 3.3.2 Mode of action
      • 3.3.3 Ecology and distribution
      • 3.3.4 Effect on phytonematodes
      • 3.3.5 Formulation and commercialization
    • 3.4 Endoparasitic Fungi
      • 3.4.1 Taxonomy and morphology
      • 3.4.2 Mode of infection
      • 3.4.3 Ecology and distribution
      • 3.4.4 Effect on phytonematodes
      • 3.4.5 Formulation and commercialization
    • 3.5 Egg- and Female-parasitic Fungi
      • 3.5.1 Paecilomyces lilacinus (= Penicillium lilacinum) (Thom, 1910) (Thom) Samson, 1974
        • Taxonomy and morphology
        • Mode of action
        • Ecology and distribution
        • Effect on phytonematodes
        • Formulation and commercialization
      • 3.5.2 Pochonia chlamydosporia (= Verticillium chlamydosporium) (Goddard, 1913) Zare and Gams, 2001
        • Taxonomy and morphology
        • Mode of action
        • Ecology and distribution
        • Effect on phytonematodes
        • Formulation and commercialization
      • 3.5.3 Trichoderma harzianum Rifai 1969 (Teleomorph: Hypocrea albofulva Berk. and Br. 1873)
        • Taxonomy and morphology
        • Mode of action
        • Ecology and distribution
        • Effect on phytonematodes
      • 3.5.4 Aspergillus niger (van Tieghem, 1867)
        • Taxonomy and morphology
        • Mode of action
        • Ecology and distribution
        • Effect on phytonematodes
        • Formulation and commercialization
    • 3.6 Toxin-producing Fungi
    • 3.7 Integrated Management
    • 3.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 4: Nematophagous Fungi: Ecology, Diversity and Geographical Distribution
    • 4.1 Introduction
    • 4.2 Diversity and Taxonomy
      • 4.2.1 Ecological speciation
      • 4.2.2 Taxonomy
      • 4.2.3 Biological species
      • 4.2.4 Parthenogenetic or thelytokous species
      • 4.2.5 Taxonomy of nematophagous fungi
      • 4.2.6 Classification
      • 4.2.7 Molecular genetics-basedclassification of trapping devices
      • 4.2.8 Molecular phylogeny in evolution
      • 4.2.9 Phylogenetic significance and evolution of trapping devices
      • 4.2.10 Ancient nematode trapping fungi
      • 4.2.11 Diversity in fungi – nematophagous fungi in particular
      • 4.2.12 Diversity of toxin-producing nematophagous fungi/nematode trapping fungi in India
    • 4.3 Distribution
    • 4.4 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Nematode-trapping Fungi
      • 4.4.1 Effect of crop and cropping systems
      • 4.4.2 Effect of salinity
      • 4.4.3 Effect of soil moisture and texture on transmission of the nematophagous fungus Hirsutella rhossiliensis to cyst and root- knot nematodes
      • 4.4.4 Comparison between organic and conventional cropping systems: interactive relationship among different factors
    • 4.5 Definitive Methodology
      • 4.5.1 New applications of statistical tools
      • 4.5.2 Bayesian statistics
      • 4.5.3 Ordinal data
      • 4.5.4 Linear mixed models
      • 4.5.5 ANOVA
      • 4.5.6 Generalized linear mixed models
      • 4.5.7 Decision theory
      • 4.5.8 Model selection
      • 4.5.9 Microarray analysis
      • 4.5.10 Pseudoreplication in large-scale ecological studies and in microarray analyses
      • 4.5.11 Multivariate statistical methods
    • 4.5.12 MANOVA
    • 4.6 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 5: Nematophagous Fungi: Virulence Mechanisms
    • 5.1 Introduction
    • 5.2 Virulence Mechanisms of Predaceous Fungi
      • 5.2.1 Adhesive hyphae
      • 5.2.2 Adhesive branches
      • 5.2.3 Adhesive nets
      • 5.2.4 Adhesive nodules
      • 5.2.5 Non-constrictor rings
      • 5.2.6 Constrictor rings
      • 5.2.7 Process of nematode infection
    • 5.3 Virulence Mechanisms of Endoparasitic Fungi
      • 5.3.1 Encysting fungi
      • 5.3.2 Conidia-producing fungi
      • 5.3.3 Ingestible conidia-producing fungi
      • 5.3.4 Fungi that produce gun cells
    • 5.4 Virulence Mechanisms of Toxin-producing Fungi
    • 5.5 Virulence Mechanisms of Egg and Female-parasitic Fungi
    • 5.6 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 6: Nematophagous Fungi: Formulation, Mass Production and Application Technology
    • 6.1 Introduction
    • 6.2 Nematophagous Fungi: Formulation
    • 6.3 Nematophagous Fungi: Mass Production
      • 6.3.1 Capsule formulation in sodium alginate
      • 6.3.2 Formulation in rice and sorghum grain
      • 6.3.3 Formulation in sugarcane bagasse and rice bran
    • 6.4 Cocktail Formulation
    • 6.5 Nematophagous Fungi: Application Technology
      • 6.5.1 Soil humidity
      • 6.5.2 Time of application
      • 6.5.3 Survival ability
    • 6.6 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgement
    • References
  • 7: Nematophagous Fungi: Commercialization
    • 7.1 Introduction
    • 7.2 Nematophagous Fungi
    • 7.3 Current Status and Challenges
    • 7.4 Development and Commercialization Process
      • 7.4.1 Selection of biocontrol agents
      • 7.4.2 Mass production
      • 7.4.3 Formulation and application
      • 7.4.4 Legal and commercial aspects
    • 7.5 Efficacy of Fungal BCAs and its Effect on Commercialization
    • 7.6 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 8: Nematophagous Fungi: Regulations and Safety
    • 8.1 Introduction
    • 8.2 Fungi Considered Safe for Use Against Phytonematodes
    • 8.3 Need for Regulations to Govern the Use of Nematophagous Fungi
      • 8.3.1 General outline for registration
      • 8.3.2 Product information requirements
        • Interactions between the fungal biocontrol agents and the environment
        • Toxicological and eco-toxicological information
        • Interactions between the fungi and non-target organisms in the environment
      • 8.3.3 Financial and time aspects of registration
      • 8.3.4 Limitations of registration
      • 8.3.5 Application, training and capacity building
    • 8.4 Inoculation Methods and Safety Regulations
      • 8.4.1 Safety issues related to handling
    • 8.5 Requirements for Registration of Fungal Products
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part III: Nematophagous Bacteria
  • 9: Nematophagous Bacteria as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 9.1 Introduction
    • 9.2 Groups of Nematophagous Bacteria
      • 9.2.1 Obligate parasitic bacteria – Pasteuria
        • Background, members and life cycle
        • Pasteuria in the biocontrol of phytonematodes
      • 9.2.2 Opportunistic parasitic bacteria
      • 9.2.3 Rhizobacteria
      • 9.2.4 Cry protein-forming bacteria
      • 9.2.5 Endophytic bacteria
      • 9.2.6 Symbiotic bacteria
    • 9.3 Nematophagous Bacteria Interaction with Biotic and Abiotic Factors
    • 9.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 10: Nematophagous Bacteria: Virulence Mechanisms
    • 10.1 Introduction
    • 10.2 Antagonistic Bacteria
      • 10.2.1 Production of enzymes, toxins and antibiotics
      • 10.2.2 Production of volatile compounds
    • 10.3 Parasitic Bacteria
      • 10.3.1 Pasteuria
    • 10.4 Symbiotic Bacteria
    • 10.5 Methods to Study Pathogenicity Mechanisms
    • 10.6 Outlook
    • Acknowledgement
    • References
  • 11 Nematophagous Bacteria: Survival Biology
    • 11.1 Introduction
    • 11.2 Parasitic Bacteria – Mode of Action and Survival
      • 11.2.1 Factors affecting survival of parasitic bacteria
        • Soil texture and organic matter content
        • Soil temperature
        • Storage conditions
    • 11.3 Non-parasitic Bacteria – Mode of Action and Survival
      • 11.3.1 Biotic factors
        • Physiological characteristics of the bacterium
        • Interactions with other organisms
      • 11.3.2 Abiotic factors
        • Texture and pH of the soil
        • Osmotic potential of the soil
        • Formulation of bioproducts
        • Cultivation of plants
        • Temperature
        • Organic residues
        • Availability of nutrients
        • Soil humidity
        • Heavy metals
        • Toxic residues
        • Inoculum level
        • Collection site and application of rhizobacteria
    • 11.4 Mechanisms of Resistance
    • 11.5 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 12: Nematophagous Bacteria: Field Application and Commercialization
    • 12.1 Introduction
    • 12.2 Formulation and Packaging of Nematophagous Bacteria
    • 12.3 Factors Affecting Bacterial Survival in the Formulation and Packaging
    • 12.4 Field Application
      • 12.4.1 Equipment
      • 12.4.2 Soil application
      • 12.4.3 Foliar application
      • 12.4.4 Compatibility with agrochemicals
      • 12.4.5 Interaction with other biotic and abiotic factors
    • 12.5 Factors Affecting Commercial Success
      • 12.5.1 Method of mass-production
      • 12.5.2 Quality control and standardization
      • 12.5.3 Market assessment
        • Product efficacy
        • Product cost, profit margins, shelf life, ease-of-use, product coverage and stability
        • Market acceptance and penetration
    • 12.6 Competition
      • 12.6.1 Traditional competition
      • 12.6.2 New competition
    • 12.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 13: Novel Bacteria Species in Nematode Biocontrol
    • 13.1 Introduction
    • 13.2 Root-knot Nematodes
      • 13.2.1 A global problem
      • 13.2.2 Biology
    • 13.3 Bacteria
      • 13.3.1 Pasteuria penetrans
      • 13.3.2 Other bacteria in biocontrol of nematodes
        • Rhizobacteria
      • 13.3.3 Bacteria of the genera Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus
      • 13.3.4 Pseudomonas oryzihabitans
    • 13.4 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part IV: Mites
  • 14: Mites as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 14.1 Introduction
    • 14.2 The Nematophagous Acari
      • 14.2.1 Taxonomy
      • 14.2.2 Modes of feeding
      • 14.2.3 Functional groups
    • 14.3 Prey Finding
      • 14.3.1 Prey consumption: laboratory studies
    • 14.4 Nematophagous Mites in Pots and in the Soil
    • 14.5 Augmenting and Conserving Mites for Phytonematode Control
      • 14.5.1 Prospecting for nematophagous mites
      • 14.5.2 Basic considerations
      • 14.5.3 Specialist versus generalist acarine predators
      • 14.5.4 Should one or more nematophagous mites be applied?
      • 14.5.5 Resource competition
      • 14.5.6 Conservation
    • 14.6 Conclusion
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part V: Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria
  • 15: Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 15.1 Introduction
    • 15.2 Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Against Phytonematodes
      • 15.2.1 Mode of action
    • 15.3 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part VI: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
  • 16: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 16.1 Introduction
    • 16.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Nematode Interactions
    • 16.3 Biological Control of Root-knot Nematodes with Arbuscular MycorrhizalFungi
      • 16.3.1 Integrated effect against root-knot nematodes
    • 16.4 Biological Control of Migratory Endoparasitic Nematodes with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
    • 16.5 Biological Control of Cyst Nematodes with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
    • 16.6 Biological Control of Other Nematodes with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
    • 16.7 Mode of Action of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Against Phytonematodes
    • 16.8 Conclusions and Future Area of Research
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part VII: Predatory Nematodes
  • 17: Predatory Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 17.1 Introduction
    • 17.2 Attributes of Biocontrol Potential
      • 17.2.1 Predation ability
        • Encountering of prey
        • Attack response
        • Feeding apparatus and feeding mechanisms
      • 17.2.2 Prey searching capability
      • 17.2.3 Mass production
      • 17.2.4 Longevity and stability
      • 17.2.5 Easy application
    • 17.3 Biocontrol Potentials of Predatory Nematodes
      • 17.3.1 Mononchid predators
      • 17.3.2 Diplogasterid predators
      • 17.3.3 Dorylaimid predators
      • 17.3.4 Aphelenchid predators
    • 17.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Part VIII: Conclusions and Future Directions
  • 18: Factors Affecting Commercial Success of Biocontrol Agents of Phytonematodes
    • 18.1 Introduction
    • 18.2 Ecological Factors
      • 18.2.1 Abiotic factors
        • Soil temperature
        • Soil type
        • Soil moisture
        • Soil pH
        • Soil nutritional status
        • Concentration of heavy metals
        • Interactions among soil abiotic factors
      • 18.2.2 Biotic factors
        • Soil organisms
        • Host plants
        • Nematode target
    • 18.3 Intrinsic Factors
    • 18.4 Technological Factors
      • 18.4.1 Production factors
      • 18.4.2 Quality control
      • 18.4.3 New technologies
    • 18.5 Societal Factors
    • 18.6 Regulatory and Commercial Factors
      • 18.6.1 Registration
      • 18.6.2 Commercial factors
      • 18.6.3 Market factors
      • 18.6.4 Distribution factors
    • 18.7 Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • 19 Limitations, Research Needs and Future Prospects in the Biological Control of Phytonematodes
    • 19.1 Introduction
    • 19.2 Limitations of Biocontrol Agents
      • 19.2.1 Isolation
      • 19.2.2 Product cost
      • 19.2.3 Ecological factors
      • 19.2.4 Application technology
      • 19.2.5 Variability in efficacy
    • 19.3 Research Needs
      • 19.3.1 Optimum price
      • 19.3.2 Easy availability
      • 19.3.3 Easy application
      • 19.3.4 Enhancing efficacy
    • 19.4 Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
• Index