"This collection contains a selection of recent work on people's production of figurative language (metaphoric, ironic, metonymic, hyperbolic, ...) and similarly of figurative expression in visual media and artefact design. The articles illuminate issues such as why and under what circumstances people produce figurative expression and how it is moulded by their aims. By focusing on production, the intention is to help stimulate more academic research on it and redress historically lower levels of published work on generation than on understanding of figurative expression. The contributions stretch across various academic disciplines-mainly psychology, cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics, but with a representation also of philosophy and artificial intelligence-and across different types of endeavour-theoretical investigation and model building, experimental studies, and applications focussed work (for instance, figurative expression in product design and online support groups). There is also a wide-ranging introductory chapter that touches on areas outside the scope of the contributed articles and discusses difficult issues such as a complex interplay of production and understanding"--.

• Producing Figurative Expression
• Editorial page
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Table of contents
• Introduction
  • 1. Motivation for the volume
  • 2. The chapters
    • 2.1 Section 1: General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor
    • 2.2 Section 2: General empirical studies – other
    • 2.3 Section 3: Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
    • 2.4 Section 4: Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
  • 3. Figurative production in areas not covered by this volume
    • 3.1 Other areas of psychology
    • 3.2 Psychotherapy
    • 3.3 Neurophysiology
    • 3.4 Metaphor usage across languages
    • 3.5 Metaphor and translation
    • 3.6 Across modalities
    • 3.7 Other
  • 4. Final remarks: Demarcation of production and understanding
  • References
• section 1. General empirical studies, with main focuson metaphor
  • Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Inducing the production of nonliteral language in interactive Icommunication
      • 2.1 The online discussion task
      • 2.2 The passage completion task
    • 3. What is the ecology that invites metaphor or sarcasm production?
      • 3.1 The discourse context generation task
    • 4. Production techniques to study the underlying mechanisms of metaphor
      • 4.1 The vehicle production task
      • 4.2 The life event generation task
    • 5. Concluding comments
    • References
  • Metaphor and one-off pictures
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Cars in motion represented by a blind girl
    • 3. Wheel metaphors by EA
    • 4. Five wheels, five metaphors
    • 5. Disclaimers tag metaphors
    • 6. EW’s ontologies
    • 7. Thoughts
    • 8. Atmospheres and impressions
    • 9. Good and bad
    • 10. Aida and esthetics
    • 11. Surfaces, expression and intellect
    • 12. Metaphors, images and perception
    • 13. Conclusion
    • References
  • Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Creative recycling of a metaphorical slogan: Britain at the heart of Europe
    • 3. Productive interpretation: New metaphor variants in questionnaire responses
      • 3.1 nation-as-body interpretations
      • 3.2 nation-as-person interpretations
      • 3.3 Discussion: Distribution patterns and their motivation
    • 4. Conclusions
    • References
  • On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Part 1: Visual metaphors and perceptual similarity
      • 2.1 Introducing visual metaphors
      • 2.2 Production of visual metaphors
      • 2.3 Introducing perceptual similarity
      • 2.4 Perceptual similarity in visual metaphors
        • 2.4.1 Perceptual similarity in juxtaposed visual metaphors
        • 2.4.2 Perceptual similarity in homospatial visual metaphors
      • 2.5 Visual metaphors vs. verbal metaphors
    • 3. Part 2: Two empirical studies on the role of perceptual similarity
      • 3.1 Study 1: Judgement of perceptual similarity
        • 3.1.1 Procedure and task
        • 3.1.2 Results
        • 3.1.3 Discussion
      • 3.2 Study 2: Shape-based perceptual similarity in the production of visual metaphors
        • 3.2.1 Preparation of stimulus material
        • 3.2.2 Condition 1
          • 3.2.2.1 Participants
          • 3.2.2.2 Procedure and task
        • 3.2.3 Condition 2
          • 3.2.3.1 Participants
          • 3.2.3.2 Procedure and task
        • 3.2.4 Results
        • 3.2.5 Discussion
    • 4. Part 3: A system to generate perceptually similar images for an intended metaphor
      • 4.1 Design approach
      • 4.2 System architecture
      • 4.3 Perceptual similarity module
      • 4.4 Conceptual similarity module
      • 4.5 Aptness module, context suggestion and integration tool
      • 4.6 Status and evaluation of the system
      • 4.7 Discussion
    • 5. Conclusions
    • References
• section 2. General empirical studies – other
  • On why people don’t say what they mean
    • 1. Problems with figurative language usage research: Types
      • Anchor 254
      • 1.2 Risks/costs
    • 2. Problems with figurative language usage research: Methods
    • 3. Solution: A study of pragmatic effects of gratitude acknowledgements using elicited authentic productions
    • 4. Gratitude acknowledgements
    • 5. Summary
    • 6. Production tasks
      • 6.1 Method
      • Anchor 262
      • 6.3 Materials
        • Procedure
    • 7. Results
    • 8. Experiment 1: Figurativity and politeness expression in gratitude acknowledgements
      • 8.1 Participants and design
      • 8.2 Materials
      • 8.3 Procedure
      • Anchor 270
    • 9. Experiment 2: Figurativity and esteem expression in gratitude acknowledgements
      • 9.1 Participants and design
      • 9.2 Materials
      • 9.3 Procedure
      • 9.4 Results and discussion
    • 10. Experiment 3: Figurativity and fondness expression in gratitude acknowledgements
      • 10.1 Participants and design
      • Anchor 278
      • 10.3 Procedure
      • 10.4 Results and discussion
    • 11. General discussion
    • 12. Pragmatics of gratitude acknowledgements
    • 13. Theoretical approaches to figurative language usage: Politeness and constraint satisfaction
      • 13.1 Politeness Theory
      • 13.2 Constraint satisfaction
    • 14. Inclusion and authenticity
    • References
  • How nice does it sound?
    • 1. Irony as an indirect argument
    • 2. The affective and evaluative aspects of irony
    • 3. Blurring the boundaries of irony’s affective aspects
    • 4. The empirical study
      • 4.1 Specific background to the study
      • 4.2 Hypotheses
      • 4.3 Participants
      • 4.4 Materials
      • 4.5 Rating studies
      • 4.6 Method
      • 4.7 Results
    • 5. Discussion
    • 6. Conclusion
    • References
  • How defaultness shapes our language production
    • 1. Introduction
      • 1.1 Conditions for interpretations’ defaultness: Which kind of responses would be definable as default outputs
      • 1.2 The defaultness hypothesis – predictions
    • 2. On the speed superiority of default over nondefault interpretations
      • 2.1 The speed superiority of default metaphorical interpretations of negative constructions over their nondefault literal counterparts
      • 2.2 The speed superiority of default sarcastic interpretations of negative constructions over their nondefault literal counterparts
      • 2.3 The speed superiority of default literal interpretations of affirmative sarcasm over their nondefault literal counterparts
      • 2.4 The speed superiority of default literal interpretations of affirmative metaphors over their nondefault literal counterparts
      • 2.5 The speed superiority of default over nondefault counterparts is insensitive to degree of figurativeness
    • 3. Resonating with default interpretations
      • 3.1 Resonating with default metaphorical interpretations of negative constructions
        • 3.1.1 Study 1: Distribution of default negative metaphoricity and default ­affirmative literalness
        • 3.1.2 Study 2: Distribution of type of resonance with default metaphorical ­interpretations of negative constructions
      • 3.2 Resonating with default sarcastic interpretations of negative constructions
        • 3.2.1 Study 3: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X s/he is not
        • 3.2.2 Study 4: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X s/he is not
        • 3.2.3 Study 5: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X is not her/his forte/best attribute
        • 3.2.4 Study 6: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X is not her/his forte/ best attribute
        • 3.2.5 Study 7: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X is not the most Y
        • 3.2.6 Study 8: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X is not the most Y
      • 3.3 Resonating with default literal interpretations of affirmative metaphor and sarcasm
        • 3.3.1 Study 9: Distribution of type of resonance with default literal interpretations of affirmative sarcasm
        • 3.3.2 Study 10: Distribution of type of resonance with default literal ­interpretations of affirmative metaphors
    • 4. Conclusions
    • References
  • Producing figurative meanings
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Definiteness and idiomaticity
    • 3. Producing figurative meanings
      • 3.1 Participants
      • 3.2 Materials and design
      • 3.3 Procedure
      • 3.4 Results
        • 3.4.1 Types of meanings for non-existing idioms
        • 3.4.2 Transparency rating
        • 3.4.3 Discussion of experimental findings
    • 4. General discussion and future directions
    • References
  • The production of verbal irony
    • 1. Definitional issues
    • 2. Cues and constraints
      • 2.1 Knowledge constraints
      • 2.2 Situational constraints
      • 2.3 Discourse goals
      • 2.4 Lexical cues
      • 2.5 Kinesic cues
      • 2.6 The ironic tone of voice
    • 3. Individual differences
      • Gender differences
      • 3.1 Personality differences
      • 3.2 Cognitive differences
    • 4. Cultural differences
      • 4.1 Linguistic and cultural variation
      • 4.2 Regional variation
    • 5. Computer-mediated communication
      • 5.1 Emoticons and emojis
      • 5.2 Other ways to signal sarcasm online
    • 6. Twitter, sentiment analysis, and verbal irony
      • 6.1 The problem of irony
      • 6.2 Identifying irony online
    • 7. Unanswered questions
    • References
• section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
  • Generating metaphors in product design
    • 1. What is a product metaphor?
    • 2. Metaphoric communication in product design
    • 3. Product metaphor generation
      • 3.1 The intention to use a metaphor
      • 3.2 The meaning to convey
        • 3.2.1 Surface vs. Deep meaning
        • 3.2.2 Embodied vs. Learned meaning
      • 3.3 The source to associate
        • 3.3.1 Salience
        • 3.3.2 Mappability
        • 3.3.3 Novelty
      • 3.4 Mapping
        • 3.4.1 Mapped properties
        • 3.4.2 Mapping strategies
    • 4. Notes on product metaphor generation
    • 5. Summary of considerations for better metaphors
    • 6. Conclusion
    • References
  • Rock bottoms, juggling balls and coalprints
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Researching metaphor production in L2 speech: Issues and challenges
    • 3. The data
    • 4. L1 and L2 metaphor use compared: The EuroCoAT corpus
    • 5. Entrenchment: Conventional and unconventional metaphors in L1 and L2 discourse
      • 5.1 The use of thematically related conventional metaphors in L2 speech
      • 5.2 Conventional phraseological metaphors in VOICE
      • 5.3 Conventional single word metaphors in VOICE
      • 5.4 Novel uses of conventional English metaphors in VOICE
    • 6. Repetition: Quoting and misquoting others’ metaphors
    • 7. Summary of findings and avenues of further research
    • References
  • Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Background: Metaphor, frames and scenarios
    • 3. Material and methods
      • 3.1 Primary data
      • 3.2 Identification and analytical procedures
    • 4. Findings
      • 4.1 Frames
      • 4.2 Selected scenarios
      • 4.3 Negotiation among posters
    • 5. Conclusions
    • References
  • The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Metaphors of time
    • 3. Methodology
      • 3.1 Data collection
      • 3.2 Data analysis
        • 3.2.1 A Wmatrix analysis of the key semantic fields
        • 3.2.2 An analysis of uses of the word “time”
        • 3.2.3 A qualitative analysis of the metaphors used to talk about people’s ­experiences of time
    • 4. Findings
      • 4.1 Identification of the key semantic fields in Wmatrix
      • 4.2 Analysis of the uses of the word “time”
      • 4.3 Qualitative analysis of the metaphors used to talk about time
        • 4.3.1 The reification of time and its entailments
        • 4.3.2 Time displacement, expansion of time, and altered levels of awareness of time
          • 4.3.2.1 Time displacement
          • 4.3.2.2 The expansion of time
          • 4.3.2.3 Increased and reduced levels of awareness of time
        • 4.3.3 Personal relationships with time, with respect to the moving time versus moving ego perspective
        • 4.3.4 Mixed metaphors
    • 5. Conclusion
    • References
• section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
  • Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Language in minds, minds in the world
    • 3. Computational approaches to metaphor
    • 4. Semantics in perspective
    • 5. Projecting metaphorical mappings
    • 6. Finding coherent subspaces
    • 7. The way forward
    • 8. Conclusion
    • References
  • Mind the gap
    • 1. Hyperbole and exaggeration
    • 2. What’s in hyperbole?
    • 3. Scaling up F and expressing affect
    • 4. Context-relative scaling
    • 5. Hyperbolic Figures
    • 6. Concluding remarks
    • References
  • Figurative language
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. The analytical tools: A thumbnail account
      • 2.1 Cognitive operations: Definition and types
      • 2.2 Inferential cognitive operations
        • 2.2.1 Formal operations
        • 2.2.2 Content operations
      • 2.3 Benefits of the account
    • 3. Figures of speech revisited
      • 3.1 Metaphor, simile, and related figures
        • 3.1.1 Allegory
        • 3.1.2 Analogy
        • 3.1.3 Paragon
        • 3.1.4 Synesthesia
        • 3.1.5 Hypocatastasis
      • 3.2 Metonymy and related figures
        • 3.2.1 Synecdoche
        • 3.2.2 Hypallage
        • 3.2.3 Anthimeria
        • 3.2.4 Anthonomasia
        • 3.2.5 Merism
        • 3.2.6 Aphorisms
      • 3.3 Overstatement
      • 3.4 Understatement, meiosis, and litotes
      • 3.5 Irony
        • 3.5.1 Antiphrasis
        • 3.5.2 Prolepsis
        • 3.5.3 Sarcasm
      • 3.6 Paradox and oxymoron
    • 4. Constraining figurative language
      • 4.1 The extended invariance principle
      • 4.2 The correlation principle
      • 4.3 Figure-specific principles: Adjusting scalar concepts and maximizing echoes and contrasts
        • 4.3.1 Scalar symmetry and scalar pragmatic adjustment
        • 4.3.2 Maximization of echoes and contrasts
    • 5. Conclusion
    • References
  • Metaphor as sign and as symbol
    • 1. A clash of signs and symbols
    • 2. Signposting the career of metaphor
    • 3. When symbols trump signs
    • 4. Needles in a metaphor haystack
    • 5. Metaphor in the moment
      • 5.1 Metaphors in the news
    • 6. Metaphors on the ground
    • 7. Summary and conclusions
    • References
• Topic Index
• Author Index