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Masters of the steppe: the impact of the Scythians and later nomad societies of Eurasia / edited by Svetlana Pankova, St John Simpson. — 1 online resource — <URL:http://elib.fa.ru/ebsco/2733811.pdf>.

Record create date: 1/24/2021

Subject: Scythians — Congresses.; Nomads — Congresses. — History; Excavations (Archaeology) — Congresses.; Scythians.

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Table of Contents

  • Cover
  • Title Page
  • Copyright page
  • Frontispiece
  • Contents Page
  • List of Figures
    • Signage at the entrance to the exhibition Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia (photograph: The British Museum)
      • Aerial photograph of the Winter Palace (photograph: The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; photograph by Igor Solovei)
  • Introduction
    • Figure 1. Marketing poster advertising the exhibition, Waterloo station, 19th September 2017
      • Figure 2. Gold, watercolours and engravings reconstruct St. Petersburg and the artistic response to the discovery of the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great (photograph: The British Museum)
      • Figure 4. Examining a gold belt plaque under high magnification in the Department of Scientific Research at the British Museum (photograph: Chloe Leighton)
      • Figure 3. Displaying objects from the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great with original watercolour drawings (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 5. The choral ensemble Russian Souvenir sing traditional songs in front of a digital projection of watercolours of Siberia (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 6. Exhibition model made by British Museum 3D designer Jon Ould (photograph: Chloe Leighton)
      • Figure 8. Creating a sympathetic ambience is essential to any exhibition (photograph: The British Museum)
      • Figure 7. Visitors are entranced by the rich variety of horsegear and other paraphernalia (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 9. The VIP tour on the opening night stops to admire frozen cheese found at Pazyryk (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 10. The Scythian lifestyle was not always hardship: evidence for feasting, communal eating and getting high on hemp (photograph: The British Museum)
      • Figure 12. Visitors stop in front of pole top ornaments and a felted pendant (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 11. Essential accessories for the afterlife: fur bag, leather and horn containers and polished metal mirrors (photograph: The British Museum)
      • Figure 13. Painting by Viktor Vasnetsov (1848–1926), Battle of the Scythians with the Slavs, oil on canvas, 1881 (The Russian Museum, St. Petersburg)
      • Figure 14. Modern postage stamps issued by the Republic of Khakassia entitled Russian archaeological heritage and illustrating Scythian and other bronzes
      • Figure 15. Promotional marketing for The Last Warrior
      • Figure 16. Visitors realising that the label graphic shows a CT-scan of the man’s head beneath the plaster mask in the centre (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 17. A family on a community preview realises that this reconstructed log cabin is an original tomb (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 18. The exhibition shop (photograph: Benedict Johnson)
      • Figure 19. Curators and conservators from the State Hermitage, National Museum of Kazakhstan and the British Museum gather on the museum front steps during de-installation
      • Figure 20. Curators and conservators from the State Hermitage and the British Museum pause briefly during condition checking (photograph: Chloe Leighton)
      • Figure 21. Installing objects requires teamwork as well as good design (photograph: Chloe Leighton)
      • Figure 22. Pinning gold lion appliqués onto a display panel takes time, skill and patience (photograph: Chloe Leighton)
      • Figure 23. Some of the participants at the conference gather for a group photograph
      • Figure 24. The conference encompassed archaeologists and curators from many countries: this group includes participants from Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Britain
  • The Sasanian and Gupta empires and their struggle against the Huns
    • H. T. Bakker
      • Figure 1. Scyphate gold coin of king Kidara from Tepe Maranjan. 7.35 g, 36 mm. National Museum of Afghanistan, Kabul, present whereabouts unknown (photograph courtesy Joe Cribb)
      • Figure 2. Sealing of Lord Uglarg. AA 2.2 (Hc009). 68 x 70 x 43 mm. Aman ur-Rahman Collection (photograph courtesy Das Anlitz des Fremden)
      • Figure 3. Silver coin of the Alchon king Khiṅgila (G44), Gandhāra. 3.54 g, 25.7 mm (Aman ur Rahman Collection; photograph courtesy Das Anlitz des Fremden)
      • Figure 4. Common coinage of four Alchon kings. a. Lakhana rāja (G79), b. Mehama ṣāhi (G316/1), c. Javukha ṣāhi (G82) (photograph courtesy Das Anlitz des Fremden); d. Khingila devaṣāhi (G81): 3.59 g, diam. 28 mm.
      • Figure 5. Silver bowl from Swat. BM 1963, 1210.1. 819.3 g, D 15.7 cm, H 5.7 cm, volume 630 ml (photograph courtesy British Museum)
      • Figure 6. Bird decorating the inner ring of the Swat bowl (detail of Fig. 5) and ceiling decoration Ajanta Cave 1
      • Figure 7. Silver bowl from Chilek. diam. 18.5 cm. c Samarkand, Museum of History and Culture of Uzbekistan. Present whereabout unknown (photograph courtesy Judith Lerner)
      • Figure 8. Medallion, bowl from Chilek and medallion, bowl from Swat
      • Figure 9. The four hunters of the Swat bowl: detail of Fig. 5 (photograph courtesy Elizabeth Errington)
      • Figure 10. The inscription punched on the Swat bowl.
      • Figure 12. Legends of silver and copper coins of Khiṅgila (G 81, detail of Fig. 4d) and (G 54: BM 1894, 0507.2006; wgt 0.92 g; photograph courtesy Trustees of The British Museum)
      • Figure 11. The upper rim of the bowl is difficult to punch
      • Figure 13. The rule of the Alchon quadrumvirate (photograph courtesy Google Earth)
  • Supersize me: political aspects of monumental tomb building in early steppe empires
    • T. J. Barfield
      • Figure 1. Monumental Scythian-type burial mounds near Salbyk in Khakassia, southern Siberia (photograph: St J. Simpson 2018)
  • Saka ‘Animal Style’:
    • A. Z. Beisenov
      • Figure 1. Location map of the Bauke-2 cemetery
      • Figure 2. The plan of the Bayke-2 cemetery: 1, kurgans; 2, kurgans with a ‘moustache’; 3, Kazakh mazars; 4, Kazakh small graves
      • Figure 3. Burial in kurgan 7: 1, stone altar; 2, bronze mirror; 3, clasp; 4, bone container
      • Figure 4. Grave-goods from kurgan 7: 1, mirror; 2, altar; 3, clasp
      • Figure 5. The decorated bone container from the Bayke-2 cemetery
      • Figure 6. Drawing of the bone container
      • Figure 7. Details of some individual figures: feline predators, ‘hare’ and goat
      • Figure 8. Other finds from Saka kurgans in the Bayke-2 cemetery: 1, bone pin, kurgan 3; 2, whetstone, kurgan 3; 3, bronze belt fastening, kurgan 8; 4–5, bronze tanged trilobate arrowheads, kurgan 8; 6, bronze girth buckle, kurgan 11
      • Figure 9. Vitreous paste beads from kurgan 3
  • A Scythian treasure in the lands of the Getae:
    • A. Berzovan
      • Figure 1. Getae forts in the east Carpathian area (5th–3rd centuries BC). Republic of Moldova: 1. Cârligeni; 2. Hansca – Toloaca; 3. Pojăreni; 4. Stolniceni; 5. Horodca Mare; 6. Horodca Mică; 7. Durlești; 8. Pănășești; 9. Horodiște; 10. Codreanca; 11. Hîr
      • Figure 2. The twin forts of Stâncești: general plan (drawn by Alexandru Berzovan)
      • Figure 3. Ditches and ramparts of the Stâncești forts (Botoșani County Museum Archive)
      • Figure 4. The context of discovery: 1, plan of dwelling no. 10 where the hoard was found (after Florescu and Florescu 2005); 2, part of the inventory of dwelling 10 (no scale, after Florescu and Florescu 2005); 3, the large golden appliqué during its rem
      • Figure 5. The hoard of Stâncești: 1, the large golden zoomorphic appliqué (after Florescu and Florescu 2005); 2–3, the smaller golden appliqués (after Florescu and Florescu 2005); 4–5, bronze appliqués (after Florescu and Florescu 2005)
      • Figure 6. The hoard of Stâncești: 1–2, bronze-silver psalia (after Florescu and Florescu 2005; drawings after Teleagă 2016); 3, iron horse-bit (after Florescu and Florescu 2005); 4, the hoard in situ (after Florescu and Florescu 2005)
      • Figure 7. Boar and fish imagery in Scythian art (not to scale): 1, Baby; 2, Nymphaeum; 3, Taman Peninsula (after Kantorovich 2015); 4, Vettersfelde (after Bukowski 1977); 5, Volkovtsy (after Lebedynsky 2010); 6, Ordzhonikidze (after Chernenko 1968)
      • Figure 8. Vulture, fish and boar (or rabbit) in Getian and Scythian art (not to scale): 1, Rogozen: goblet; 2, Peretu: ceremonial helmet; 3, Detroit: ceremonial helmet; 4, Agighiol: goblet (after Sîrbu and Trohani 2007); 5, Maikop: appliqué (after Nebelsi
  • Interactions between mobile pastoralists and settled agricultural societies in central Asia:
    • N. Boroffka
      • Figure 1. Map showing the location of the sites presented (base map © DAI-Eurasien Abteilung with sites added by the author)
      • Figure 2. Plan of Gonur North: the grey areas mark the river Murghab and water basins, the locations of steppe pottery finds are marked by stars in the east, southeast and southwest and others lie outside the city area in satellite villages (drawing by
      • Figure 3. Examples of steppe-type ‘incised coarse ware’ from Gonur depe: 1, sector 18, room 67; 2, sector 18, room 68; 3, satellite village Gonur depe 22 (photographs by the author)
      • Figure 5. Mushiston, Tajikistan: Bronze Age mining gallery with visible greenish and yellowish minerals of copper and tin (© Bergbaumuseum Bochum; photograph: J. Cierny)
      • Figure 4. Mushiston, Tajikistan: landscape with exploration trenches of the Soviet period which partly cut ancient mining galleries (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photographs N. Boroffka)
      • Figure 6. Karnab, Uzbekistan: mining shaft 3-3 before excavation (© Bergbaumuseum Bochum)
      • Figure 7. Karnab, Uzbekistan: general view of the mining settlement (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photograph: author)
      • Figure 8. Baykara, Kazakhstan: virtual image of the main construction phases of the ritual building: 1, phase 1; 2, phase 2; 3, phase 3; 4, phase 4 (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung)
      • Figure 9. Barsuchiy Log, Russia: virtual image of construction phase 1c1 of the burial mound (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung)
      • Figure 10. Barsuchiy Log, Russia: virtual image of construction phase 1c4 of the burial mound (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung)
      • Figure 11. Barsuchiy Log, Russia: virtual image of construction phase 2b2 of the burial mound (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung)
      • Figure 12. Zhoan Tobe, Kazakhstan: image of geomagnetic measurements on and around the burial mound (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; measurements J. Fassbinder and T. Gorka)
      • Figure 13. Zhoan Tobe, Kazakhstan: section through the stone-paved road around the burial mound (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photograph: A. Nagler)
      • Figure 15. Kurganzol, Uzbekistan: landscape near the fortress of Kurganzol, located at the top of the spur in the centre of the image (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photograph: author)
      • Figure 14. Zhoan Tobe, Kazakhstan: image of finds during excavation, wheel-thrown bowls with T-shaped rims (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photograph: A. Nagler)
      • Figure 16. Kurganzol, Uzbekistan: panorama image of the interior fortress, looking north. The gate (not opened for conservation reasons) lies in the upper centre of the image (© DAI-Eurasien Abteilung; photograph: author)
      • Figure 17. Kurganzol, Uzbekistan: plan of the fortress (base plan © L. Sverchkov, modified by the author)
      • Figure 18. Kurganzol, Uzbekistan: 1, ‘fish-plates’ of Greek-inspired shapes; 2, wheel-thrown bowls with T-shaped rims, comparable to those found in Zhoan Tobe and Issyk; 3, bowls of Greek-inspired shapes, left – wheel-thrown with black Hellenistic slip, c
  • The Arzhan-2 ‘royal’ funerary-commemorative complex:
    • K. V. Chugunov
      • Figure 1. Plan of the Arzhan-2 funerary-memorial complex with excavations on the periphery marked
      • Figure 2. Plan of the Arzhan-2 barrow
      • Figure 4. Section AG. View from the north
      • Figure 5. The fence and wall in section AUB. In the background are cuts in the layer of clay on the buried soil
      • Figure 3. Section FS. View from the east
      • Figure 6. Cross-section of the wall and cromlech in sections АКМ, ABU and ACD
      • Figure 8. The rebuilt fence in section ANP
      • Figure 7. Sacrificial altar between the fence and the wall opposite the principal burial
      • Figure 9. Cross-section of the clay bank in the eastern part of the barrow
      • Figure 10. Grave 13: overall view of the burial
      • Figure 11. Grave 13: plan of the roofing slabs and cross-section
      • Figure 13. Grave 20: sketch of the covering and cross-section
      • Figure 12. The pit of Grave 20 beneath the section
      • Figure 14. Grave 20: overall view of the burial containing both skeletons
      • Figure 15. The burial in Grave 25
      • Figure 16. Grave 5: plan with the burial of a child behind the southeast wall of the burial chamber
      • Figure 17. Overall view of the horse burial in Grave 16
      • Figure 18. Grave 16 in section AP
      • Figure 19. Reconstruction of the formation of the funerary-memorial complex and the section of the barrow: first and second stages (draughtsman: Igor Ananiev)
      • Figure 20. Reconstruction of the formation of the funerary-memorial complex and the section of the barrow: third stage (draughtsman: Igor Ananiev)
      • Figure 22. Reconstruction of the formation of the funerary-memorial complex and the section of the barrow: end of the fourth stage (draughtsman: Igor Ananiev)
      • Figure 21. Reconstruction of the formation of the funerary-memorial complex: beginning of the fourth stage (draughtsman: Igor Ananiev)
      • Figure 23. Arrowhead from complexes in the Arzhan-2 barrow
      • Table 1. Correlation of types of arrowheads found in complexes of the Arzhan-2 barrow: the first line and column show the numbers of the types of arrows, the second column shows the classification type (Chugunov 2011a).
      • Figure 25. Tanged arrowheads of the earlier and later groups
      • Figure 24. Socketed arrowheads of the earlier and later groups
      • Figure 26. Knives from complexes in the Arzhan-2 barrow
      • Figure 27. 1: Gold earring with gold ferrule from Grave 5. 2: Gold earring with bone ferrule from Grave 22 (National Museum of the Republic of Tuva; photograph by V.S. Terebenin)
      • Table 2. Relative chronology of the funerary monuments at Arzhan-2
  • Scythian archers of the 4th century BC:
    • M. Daragan
      • Figure 1. Images of archers on the objects of Scythian toreutics: 1, on a vessel from a kurgan of group 3 of the Chastye kurgans; 2, on a vessel from the Kul-Oba kurgan; 3, on a vessel from the Solokha kurgan (according to Alekseev 2012); 4, on plaques fr
      • Figure 2. Burial 3, kurgan 2 of the ‘Three Brothers’ group: 1–2, bows; 3–4, painted arrow shafts (after Bessonova 1973; 2008)
      • Figure 3. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4: plan of the burial (drawing: author)
      • Figure 4. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4: 1, quiver with arrows, graph in situ; 2, fragment of quiver; 3, bronze plaque; 4, arrow; 5, preserved arrow endings with marks (photographs: author)
      • Figure 5. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4. Arrowheads; 1-8 – type 1; 9-16 – type 2 (drawings and photographs: author)
      • Figure 6. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4 wooden bow showing its shape before pulling the bowstring: 1, photo; 2, drawing (by O.E. Buravchuk); 3, X-ray image (imagery: author)
      • Figure 7. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4: photographs of separate parts of bow (photographs: author)
      • Figure 8. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4, scheme of bringing the recurved Scythian bow into firing position: a, the shape of the bow before pulling the bowstring; b, in the process of pulling and with stretched bowstring (imagery: author)
      • Figure 9. Vodoslavka, kurgan 8, burial 4: three-dimensional computed tomography scan of the middle part of the bow (imagery: author)
      • Figure 10. Vladimirovka, burial 4: 1, plan; 2–3, wooden arrows and bow, drawing; 4, wooden bow, photograph (after Kolotukhin 1987)
      • Figure 11. Brilyovka, kurgan 22, burial 2: plan and photograph (after Yevdokimov, Gershkovich and Fridman 1985, drawing by О.Ye. Buravchuk)
      • Figure 12. Brilyovka, kurgan 22, burial 2: arrowheads from the quiver 1: 1-24: bronze, 25-35: bone (drawings and photograph: author)
      • Figure 13. Brilyovka, kurgan 22, burial 2: arrowheads from the quiver 2 (drawings and photograph: author)
      • Figure 14. Ryzhanovsky kurgan: 1, arrangement of bow and quivers on the plan: the quivers had not been drawn on the plan but were plotted according to the description in the text (after Skory et al. 1999, drawing by O.Ye. Buravchuk); 2, bow and quiver in
      • Figure 15. Soboleva Mogila, burial 2: 1, gorytos; 2, bow plate (after Mozolevsky and Polin eds 2005)
      • Figure 16. Soboleva Mogila, burial 2. Bronze arrowheads. 1-6 – quiver No. 1; 7.8 – quiver No. 3; 9-13 – quiver No. 2; 14-16 – quiver No. 4; 17-19 – gorytos; 20, 21 – quiver No. 5 (after Mozolevsky and Polin eds 2005)
      • Figure 17. Painted arrows: 1–2, from kurgan 8, burial 1 at Vodoslavka village; 3–10, from kurgan 5, burial 2 at Bulgakovo village (drawing by O. Ye. Buravchuk)
      • Figure 18. The preserved binding, probably on the place of fletching, on an arrow from burial 2 in kurgan 5 at Bulgakovo village (photograph: author)
      • Figure 19. Scythian bronze arrowheads embedded in human bone (photographs: author)
      • Table 1. Numbers of quivers and arrows in burials
  • Fabergé and the gold making tradition in Russia
    • C. de Guitaut
      • Figure 1. Lion’s Head Bracelet, Phillips Brothers and Sons, c. 1870–1880 (British Museum, inv. nr. 1978,1002.980, Hull Grundy Gift)
      • Figure 2. Match Holder, Fabergé, St. Petersburg, before 1896, Royal Collection (RCIN 8337) (Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018)
      • Figure 3. The Great Exhibition: Russia: Joseph Nash (1809–1878) 1851, pencil, watercolour and bodycolour, Royal Collection (RCIN 919954) (source: Royal Collection Trust)
      • Figure 4. Punch Set, Sergei Verkhovtsev and Imperial Glass Factory, St. Petersburg, 1874, Royal Collection (RCIN 104208.a-k (source: Royal Collection Trust) (Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018)
      • Figure 5. Amphora, Fabergé, St. Petersburg, before 1896, Royal Collection (RCIN 9112) (Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018)
      • Figure 6. Terrestrial Globe, Fabergé, St. Petersburg, before 1896, Royal Collection (RCIN 40484) (Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018)
  • Scythians, Persians, Greeks and horses:
    • H.-P. Francfort
      • Figure 1. Lotus flower roundels, and lions with geese in split representation: horn, Pazyryk 2 (after Rudenko 1970: fig. 159a–c: a, The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1684/353, b, 1684/358, c, 1684/361)
      • Figure 2. Chronological chart based on published dates
      • Figure 3. Satyr-like face as a leather cut-out, Pazyryk 1 (after Rudenko 1970: fig. 138f–g)
      • Figure 4. Satyr face on an Achaemenid jug found at Susa, Iran (Musée du Louvre, inv. nr. AO 2748; photograph: author)
      • Figure 5. Bridle, Pazyryk culture, 5th century BC, Pazyryk 1 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1295-400; photograph: Vladimir Terebenin / Alexander Lavrentyev)
      • Figure 6. Chest-strap, Pazyryk culture (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1295-420; photograph: Vladimir Terebenin / Alexander Lavrentyev)
      • Figure 7. Burial at Ak-Alakha 3, kurgan 1: plan of horse burials (after Polosmak 2001: pl. V)
      • Figure 8. Burial at Ak-Alakha 3, kurgan 1: bridle ornaments of horse 4 (after Polosmak 2001: fig. 58b)
      • Figure 9. Burial at Ak-Alakha 3, kurgan 1: bridle ornaments of horse 6 (after Polosmak 2001: fig. 62a)
      • Figure 10. Burial at Ak-Alakha 3, kurgan 1: bridle ornaments of horse 5 (after Polosmak 2001: fig. 59)
      • Figure 11. Palmette and raptor heads, bronze from Chenyangchuan (after Bunker et al. 1997: fig. A45)
      • Figure 12. Palmette, raptor heads and horned lion from wood covered with tin from Berel’11, Kazakhstan (after Francfort, Ligabue and Samashev 2006: fig. 15; photograph CNRS/MAFAC)
      • Figure 13. Lotus ornament on cloth trousers from Dzhambulak Kum (Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi, PRC; photograph CNRS/MAFCX)
      • Figure 14. Detail of lotus bud of the frieze bordering an audience scene on a felt hanging from Pazyryk 5 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; after Rudenko 1970: pl. 145)
      • Figure 16. Frieze of ‘passing lions’: painting on wood, Ai Khanum temple (after Francfort 1984: pl. 16.20; drawing made by the late R. Audouin in the field, 1968)
      • Figure 15. Lotus ornament on a bronze plaque from the temple at Ai Khanum: 1, photograph (National Museum of Afghanistan; after Cambon and Jarrige eds 2006: 154, cat. 17); 2, drawing (after Francfort 1984: pl. 21.29b: drawing by J.-Cl. Liger)
      • Figure 17. Addorsed griffin protomes on a stone column capital from Persepolis, Iran (photograph: author)
      • Figure 18. ‘Royal hero’ in combat with a horned lion on a stone relief at Persepolis, Iran (photograph: author)
      • Figure 19. Horned lions walking and frieze of lotus and palmettes on glazed bricks from Susa, Iran (Musée du Louvre; photograph: author)
      • Figure 20. Horned lion on Achaemenid stone column capital from Persepolis, Iran (photograph: author)
      • Figure 21. Lions and horned lions on inlaid gold torcs from the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, 5th–4th century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727-1/62, Z-568; photograph: Vladimir Terebenin / Alexander Lavrentyev)
      • Figure 22. Horned lion designs: 1, saddle with horned lion face and profile on crupper, Pazyryk 5; 2, detail of pommel with horned lion face pendant; 3, detail of horned lion face, saddle-pendant, Pazyryk culture (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersbur
      • Figure 23. Detail of lion head in profile, Palace of Darius, Susa (Musée du Louvre; photograph: author)
      • Figure 25. Lion attacking a bull: 1, Achaemenid art at Persepolis; 2, Treasury of the Siphnians in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi
      • Figure 24. Horned lions: 1, carved wooden crupper ornament with horned lion seen en face and in profile, Pazyryk 5 (after Rudenko 1970: pl. 116F); 2, inlaid gold dagger sheath: horned lion seen en face and in profile, Tillya tepe burial 4 (National Museum
      • Figure 26. Audience scenes: 1, felt hanging, Pazyryk 5 (State Hermitage Museum; after Rudenko 1970: pl. 145); 2, Achaemenid relief, Persepolis (photograph: author)
      • Figure 27. 1: Majiayuan (Gansu) reconstitution of type A chariot in burial M3-1 (after Gansu Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 2014: pl. 14); 2: representation of the goddess Cybele riding a chariot, gilded silver, Ai Khanum (National Museum of Afghanistan; a
      • Figure 28. Lion attacking a deer on a bone scabbard for a short sword from Takht-i Sangin, Tajikistan (Dushanbe Archaeological Museum; after Schiltz 1994: fig. 229)
      • Figure 29. Mashan, silk, image of chariot and hunt: 1, view from above; 2, profile (after Jingzhou Museum 1985, ‘Chou Tomb I at Mashan. in Jiangling’, Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing: 48–49)
      • Figure 30. Feline attacking a herbivore: bronze, Chenyangchuan, Ningxia, PRC (after Bunker, Kawami, Linduff and Wu 1997: fig. A44)
      • Figure 31. Greek hoplite statuette, Gongnaisi, Xinjiang, Urumqi Museum, PRC (after Zongguo Lishi Bowuguan and Xinjiang Weiwu’er Zuzhiqu Wenwuju 2002: 28–29)
  • Textiles, dyes and pigments of the European Scythians:
    • M. Gleba, I. Vanden Berghe, M. Daragan
      • Table 1. Summary of burials which yielded materials analysed in this study [*without osteological determination of gender]
      • Figure 1. Micrographs of textile samples nos 1–9 (images: M. Gleba)
      • Figure 2. Objects and micrographs of textile samples nos 10–12 (images: M. Daragan)
      • Table 2. Summary of textile analysis results [NA – Not Analysed]
      • Table 3. Summary of dye analysis results
      • Figure 3. Painted leather finds (left) with micrographs of samples (Images: M. Daragan and I. Vanden Berghe)
      • Table 4. Summary of pigment analysis results
  • Scythian gold from 19th century private collections
    • O. Gorskaya
      • Figure 1. Gold plaque in the form of a seated griffin (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19202; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 2. Gold plaque in the form of a hare (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 17683; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 4. Gold plaque in the form of a recumbent lion (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 6684; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 3. Gold plaque in the form of a running hare (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19196; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 5. Gold plaque in the form of a youth in a ‘kneeling run’ position (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 20152; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 6. Gold plaque in the form of a seated sphinx (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19198; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 7. Gold plaque in the form of a lion with its head reversed (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19199; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 8. Gold plaque in the form of a lion pouncing on a deer (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 20491; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 9. Gold plaque in the form of a flower (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 20503; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 10. Gold plaque in the form of the young god Dionysus (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 17725; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 11. Gold plaque in the form of the young god Dionysus (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19195; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 12. Gold plaque in the form of the young god Dionysus (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19197; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 13. Gold plaque in the form of a rosette (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 19200; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 14. Hilt of a Scythian sword (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. GR 14320; photograph by Alexander Lavretnyev)
      • Figure 15. The hilt of the Scythian sword
  • Scientific study of the etching process used on ancient carnelian beads
    • C. Holé, A. Mongiatti, St J. Simpson
      • Figure 2. Etched carnelian beads from the BM collections classified following Beck’s groups
      • Figure 1. Etched carnelian beads from the BM collections of various colours (above) and of various shapes (right)
      • Figure 3. Etched carnelian beads from the BM collection with white or yellowish-brown designs
      • Figure 4. Etched carnelian beads from the BM collection with degraded patterns and showing an almost continuous central threading hole
      • Figure 5. Typical features of mis-aligned central perforations on beads from the BM collection (scale 0.8 mm)
      • Figure 6. Drilling marks and edges of threading holes on beads from the BM collection (scales: left top and bottom 0.5 mm; top right 0.2 mm; bottom right 0.8 mm)
      • Figure 7. (a) Photomicrographs (scale 0.2 mm) and (b) SEM images of marks resulting from degradation processes
      • Figure 8. Scratches most likely resulting from wear on etched and unetched areas of beads from the BM collections (scale 0.2 mm)
      • Figure 9. Etched areas of beads from the BM collections, showing clear signs of weathering or degradation (scale 0.2 mm)
      • Figure 10. SEM BSE image of bead showing a network of fine pores in the etched area (British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008.29)
      • Figure 11. Photomicrographs of micrometric fractures at the interface between the etched and unetched areas on beads from the BM collections (scale 0.1 mm)
      • Figure 12. Peak attribution on the Raman spectrum of modern carnelian, selected as reference spectrum in this study
      • Figure 13. Raman spectra acquired on uncleaned surfaces of various archaeological beads from the British Museum collection
      • Figure 14. SE image of the unpolished cross-section of a bead: (top: etched area, bottom: plain carnelian (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008.29)
      • Figure 15. Elemental maps of an etched area of bead: SE image of the mapped area (top left), compositional maps for silicon (Si, top right), calcium (Ca, bottom left) and oxygen (O, bottom right); width of view: c. 0.6 mm); on each map, the brighter the c
      • Figure 16. High-resolution and high-magnification BSE (left) and SE (right) images of the calcium-rich grains observed in the microstructure of the etched areas of of the sampled archaeological bead (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008.29)
      • Figure 17. BSE image of the polished cross-section of the sampled archaeological bead showing pores in the etched area, increasing in number and size closer to the surface, and numerous cracks (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008.29)
      • Table 1. First stage of the experiment, testing the various sticky media
      • Figure 18. Carnelian beads fired at 450°C for 15 minutes: one non-fractured homogeneously coloured bead (left) and one partially broken bead with a lighter-coloured centre (right)
      • Figure 19. Micrometric fractures at the interface between the etched and unetched areas on two different experimental samples (scale 0.1 mm)
      • Figure 20. BSE images of experimentally etched areas with an etching paste made of sodium alginate (0.1 g/ml)/washing soda (1.25 g/ml) in 5:1 ratio (top left, top right and bottom left) and made of sodium alginate (0.15 g/ml)/washing soda (1.25 g/ml) in 5
      • Figure 21. Photomicrographs of the thin non-porous transparent surface layer covering etched areas (scales: left 0.2 mm; right 0.1 mm)
      • Figure 22. BSE images of transparent surface layers covering etched areas
      • Figure 23. Raman spectra of the plain carnelian, the porous etched area and the non-porous surface layer showing the peaks attributed to the phases of moganite and quartz
      • Figure 24. Photomicrographs of a deep mark left by the interrupted drilling of the threading hole near the completed central perforation (left; scale 5 mm) and of an etched area close to but not cut through by the drilled perforation (right; scale 0.1 mm)
      • Figure 25. Ternary diagram of the SEM-EDX compositional analyses of calcium, silicon and phosphorus oxides in calcium- and phosphorus-rich grains (white squares) and in other grains (grey squares)
      • Figure 26. High-magnification SE images of the porous etched areas of an archaeological bead (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008.29; left) and an experimental modern sample (right)
  • Trade, community and labour in the Pontic Iron Age forest-steppe region, c. 700–200 BC
    • J. A. Johnson
      • Figure 1. Map of the socio-environmental zones of Iron Age Ukraine and surrounding territories (after Ventresca Miller et al. forthcoming; adapted by the author)
      • Figure 2. Distribution map of forest-steppe ‘cultural’ or ethnic settlements (after Rolle 2011: 114; Petrenko 1989: 67; adapted by the author)
      • Figure 3. DEM of the Pontic region with assembled settlement data shown (after Daragan 2017; Shramko 1987; 2016). Least cost path analyses shown in purple and possible trading or socio-economic groups identified by different dashed ellipses (analysis and
      • Figure 4. Image of the Bel’sk locality (after Makhortykh 2013; adapted by the author)
  • The predator scene in Scythian ‘Animal Style’ as a socio-political indicator
    • V. A. Kisel
      • Figure 1. Scenes of domination of herbivores by beasts of prey: 1, iron arrowhead with gold decoration, 7th century BC, L 4.1, W 1.3 cm, Tuva, Arzhan-2 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2917/25); 2, bronze dagger, 8th–7th century BC, L
      • Figure 2. Scenes of wild beasts devouring their prey: 1, felt and leather saddlecloth, 4th century BC, L 119, W 60 cm, Altai mountains, Pazyryk mound 1 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1295/150); 2, wood and leather pommel, 4th centur
      • Figure 3. Scenes of animals fighting: 1, gold belt plaque with turquoise, 4th–3rd century BC, L 15.1, W 10 cm, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si.1/3); 2, gold belt plaque, 4th–3rd century BC, L
      • Figure 4. Scenes of animals fighting: 1, fragment of carpet, felt, silk, 1st century, Mongolia, Noin-Ula burial ground, kurgan 6 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. МР-1956); 2, copper alloy belt plaque, 2nd–1st century BC, L 12.3, W 5.5
  • ‘Animal Style’ art: influences and traditions in the nomadic world
    • E. Korolkova
      • Figure 1. View of the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great displays in the Treasury, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
      • Figure 2. Gold belt plaque with dragons, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 2nd–1st century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si.1727/157)
      • Figure 3a-b. Gold belt plaques with a boar-hunting scene, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 2nd–1st century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727–1/69, 1/70)
      • Figure 4a-b. Gold belt plaques with animals fighting, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 4th–3rd century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727–1/5, 1/6)
      • Figure 5. Gold armlet, 5th century BC, Oxus Treasure (The British Museum, inv. nr. 124017)
      • Figure 6. Late Assyrian carved stone relief panel from the Temple of Ninurta, Nimrud (after Layard 1853: vol. II, 21)
      • Figure 7. Gold plaque, c. 5th century BC, Oxus Treasure (The British Museum, inv. nr. 123929)
      • Figure 8. Gold torc, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 4th–3rd century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Z–568)
      • Figure 9. Gold torc, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 4th–3rd century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727–1/62)
      • Figure 10. Gold aigrette, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 4th–3rd century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727–1/131)
      • Figure 11. Phoenician ivory excavated at ‘Fort Shalmaneser’, Nimrud, 8th century BC (Iraq Museum, Baghdad, ND 10509)
      • Figure 13. Gold eagle with cloisonné decoration, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, 4th–3rd century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Z–557)
      • Figure 12. Phoenician ivory excavated at ‘Fort Shalmaneser’, Nimrud, 8th century BC (Iraq Museum, Baghdad, ND 9475)
      • Figure 14. Gold belt buckle in ‘Animal Style’ from Sarmatian kurgan 2 in lower Volga region, Verkhnaya Pogromnoje, 1st century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1953/23)
      • Figure 15. Bracelet, late 4th or early 3rd century BC, H 4.6, max D 6.94 cm, wgt 145 g (private collection, London)
      • Figure 16. Lost dagger hilt, watercolour from the catalogue of drawings, 1730s, Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg branch of the Archive of Russian Academy of Science, 2018: category IX, opus 4, delo 291, leaf 1: centre of the page), 2018
  • To accompany and honour the deceased:
    • S. Lepetz, K. Debue, D. Batsukh
      • Figure 1. Geographical location of sites
      • Figure 2. Position of human bodies and horses in the main tombs of the Mongolian Altai
      • Figure 3. Position of human bodies and horses in the main tombs of the Mongolian Altai
      • Figure 4. Main characteristics of the horses for each of the tombs studied
      • Figure 5. Perforations on the skull of the horse of tomb 10 at Baga Türger 6
      • Figure 6. Perforations on the skull of the horse of tomb 12 at Baga Türger 6
      • Figure 7. Perforations on the skull of the horse of tomb 1 at Tsengel Khairkhan 1
      • Figure 8. Perforations on the skull of the horse of tomb 3 at Khatuu 1
      • Figure 9. Perforations on the skull of the horse of tomb 6 at Khatuu 6
      • Figure 10. The number of horses in the graves
      • Figure 11. Detail of the Pazyryk carpet: the gender of the horses is clearly indicated
      • Figure 12. Age of horses in graves
      • Figure 13. Position, age, sex and colour of the coat of the horses in Berel’ 11
      • Figure 15. Counting bone pathologies of Mongolian grave horses
      • Figure 14. Bone pathology impacting the backs of horses
      • Figure 16. Position of slaughter impacts on Mongolian horses – 1
      • Figure 17. Position of slaughter impacts on Mongolian horses – 2
  • The royal *gaunaka: dress, identity, status and ceremony in Achaemenid Iran
    • L. Llewellyn-Jones
      • Figure 1. Achaemenid royal dress: Darius I at Bisitun (photograph: St J. Simpson)
      • Figure 2. Forms of Achaemenid dress depicted at Persepolis: coats with false sleeves, loose belted gowns and belted riding costume (photograph: St J. Simpson)
      • Figure 3. Man wearing a coat with false sleeves in an Afghan market (photograph: the late David Whitehouse)
      • Figure 5. A pair of miniature gold statuettes from the Oxus Treasure showing men wearing the *gaunaka (The British Museum, inv. nrs 1897,1231.2/123902, 1897,1231.2a/123903)
      • Figure 4. Narrow leather false sleeve with appliqué excavated in kurgan 1 at Tuekta in the Altai mountains; 5th century BC, L 32.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2179/972)
  • Scythian archery
    • M. Loades
      • Figure 1. A rare Scythian bow in extraordinarily good condition dated to the 5rd–3rd centuries BC. Unstrung it spans 44 inches, which by composite bow standards is not an unusually short bow. The sinew layers are visible and there are traces that show tha
      • Figure 2. Parts of the wooden and horn core laid out before assembly and the application of sinew. This layout, produced by Jason Beever, gives an idea of the complexity of these bows. Such elaborate construction shows an advanced appreciation of mechanic
      • Figure 3. A small gold plaque depicting two Scythian archers back-to-back from the Kul-Oba burial mound near Kerch. They have extremely short bows and are either only partially drawn or are using a very short draw. This iconic piece is widely published an
      • Figure 4. Gold drinking vessel from Kul-Oba, a 4th century BC Scythian kurgan in the Crimea. The mode of suspension for the gorytos is shown clearly and sits on the left hip. The figures on the vessel represent a Scythian creation myth concerning a challe
      • Figure 5. Author wearing replica of gorytos: not only does the gorytos balance well for the horse archer but it is equally suited for the infantry archer. The single strap allows for small adjustments by sliding it along the belt. When running on foot the
      • Figure 6. Replica bronze Sarmatian thumb-ring, made by ‘Custom Thumb Rings’. Dated to around AD 100, the original was discovered by archaeologists in the Ukraine in 2015. It is the earliest known solid ring to have been unearthed outside China. The Sarmat
      • Figure 7. Athenian plate representing a Scythian archer. This image and one or two other similar images present a problem. At first glance it supports the idea that the Scythians turned their quivers to be forward facing in use. This appeals to confirmati
      • Figure 8. Replica Scythian arrowhead showing an example with the single barb (author’s collection, photograph: Kim Hawkins)
      • Figure 10. Trilobate Scythian arrowheads from Arzhan-2, second half of the 7th century BC. Exquisitely decorated with gold overlaid onto iron and illustrative of the very high status of Scythian military archery (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersbu
      • Figure 9. Scythian bronze arrowheads from Arzhan-2, southern Siberia, 7th century BC. Some are tanged and others socketed. Many are trilobate. The horn blunt is most probably for hunting birds or small game. A distinctive feature on a number of surviving
      • Figure 11. Fragments of painted arrow shafts from the burial mound at Pazyryk 3, southern Siberia. Late 4th/early 3rd century BC. The shafts are of birch and have been painted. Cinnabar red is dominant because it is a pigment that survives better over tim
      • Figure 12. The author’s reconstruction of a Scythian saddle under construction. From the funerary evidence the bolsters at the corners are given some rigidity with wooden arches. The pads are stuffed with wool. A felt saddle cloth is tacked to the undersi
      • Figure 13. The author’s reconstruction of a Scythian saddle in situ. Note that the two padded panels in the centre are joined by a single layer of leather. This was a significant improvement on a simple pad saddle, which cushioned the seat for the rider b
      • Figure 14. A Scythian horse archer from the 4th–5th century BC. He is shown sitting in the ‘chair seat’ with bent legs hooked into the bolsters. It may be that this position is how they rode but, in the author’s experience, it is extremely difficult and c
      • Figure 15. Replica of four-horn Parthian style saddle: the derivation from the Scythian saddle is clear with the bolsters evolving into pronounced and sturdy horns (photograph by Kim Hawkins)
      • Figure 16. The author shooting from a Parthian style saddle. Note that there are no stirrups. Nevertheless, the forward horns enable the rider to lean forward and so elevate his seat from the bounce of the horse’s motion at the moment of shooting. It is a
  • A priestly burial from the Taksai-1 cemetery
    • Y. Lukpanova
      • Figure 1. Plan of the cemetery complex at Taksai-1
      • Figure 2. Plan of kurgan 6 after excavation
      • Figure 4. The southern wall of the tomb pit
      • Figure 3. Log roof of the central tomb with horse bridles in situ
      • Figure 5. Plan of the main distribution of finds within the tomb pit
      • Figure 6. Plan of the finds associated with burial 3
      • Figure 7. Physical reconstruction of the appearance of lady in burial 3 (photograph: Krym Altynbekov)
      • Figure 8. Drawn reconstruction of the appearance of the lady in burial 3 (drawing by the author)
      • Figure 9. The frame of the headdress, H 53 cm, wgt 325 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. тк2-913) (drawing by Diyarov Timur)
      • Figure 10. Gold plaques with representations of rams, H 2.5 cm, wgt 34 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. тк2-925/1-7)
      • Figure 12. Gold plaques with rotating griffin-heads in a swastika composition, H 4 х 4 cm, wgt 212 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. тк2-926/1-16)
      • Figure 13. Biconical gold clothing beads, H 2 cm, wgt 47 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nrs тк2-915/1-8, тк2-932, тк2-933, тк2-934)
      • Figure 11. Gold plaques depicting the heads of mountain goats, H 4.5 х 3 cm, wgt 254 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. тк2-924/1-26)
      • Figure 15. Gold pendant earrings: 1, H 11 cm, wgt 89 g; 2, H 21 cm, wgt 110 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nrs тк2-928, тк2-929)
      • Figure 14. Drawn reconstruction of the clothing indicating the original position of the decorative elements (drawing by the author)
      • Figure 16. Bronze mirror with gold overlay, L 34.6 cm (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. тк2-942) (drawing by Diyarov Timur)
      • Figure 17. Bronze cauldron, H 20 cm (Museum of Local History, Uralsk, inv. nr. 9326/9 BKOM) (drawing by Diyarov Timur)
      • Figure 18. Bronze brazier, H 10.5, D 20.5 х 15 cm (Museum of Local History, Uralsk, inv. nr. 9326/8 BKOM)
      • Figure 19. Poplar-wood comb, W 10.6, H 15.8 cm (Museum of Local History, Uralsk, inv. nr. 28601BKOM) (drawing by Diyarov Timur)
      • Figure 20. Gold bracelets: 1, D 7.9 х 6.5 cm, wgt 182 g; 2, D 6.5 cm, wgt 182 g (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nrs тк2-930, 2-931) (drawing by Diyarov Timur)
  • The Okunev culture:
    • L. S. Marsadolov
      • Figure 1. Depictions and artefacts of Okunev culture in Khakassia: 1–8, 11–14, 18–19, stone statues and slabs; 9–10, 21, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic rod-amulets; 15-16, vessels; 17, temporal ring; 20, cult staff; 22, harpoon (see Table 1)11
      • Figure 2. Artefacts of Okunev culture: 1, stone slab with depiction of a fabulous beast (Chernovaya-VIII burial ground; stone, L 118 x 89 cm; The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2441/1); 2, cult rod depicting a woman’s head (Chernovaya-VI
      • Figure 3. Cult pendant in the shape of a half-moon. Chernovaya-VIII burial ground, barrow 8; stone, L 29 cm; The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2377/45: 1, overall view and cross-section; 2–4, diagrams of the marking out of a circle usin
      • Table 1. Depictions and artefacts of Okunev culture in Khakassia (see Figure 1)
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Figure 4. Megaliths in southern Siberia and Britain: 1, stele from the ‘Ring of Brodgar’ in Scotland (H c. 5 m); 2, stele in the southeast corner of the wall of a barrow in the Safronovo burial ground in Khakassia (H c. 6 m); 3, ‘Fertility Stele’ at the
      • Figure 5. Correlating depictions of Okunev culture (1-17), Scythian (18-22, 24-38) and Tashtyk period (23) (Table 2)
      • Figure 6. Depictions on stone statues, artefacts and tattoos Stone statues: 7, Okunev culture, 3rd millennium BC; 1, 6, 8, 12, ‘deer’ stones, 8th–7th centuries BC. Artefacts: 2, 4, 7th century BC; 3, 8th century BC; 5, 6th century BC (Table 3)
      • Table 2. Correlation of depictions of Okunev culture, Scythian and Tashtyk periods (see Figure 5)
      • Table 2. Continued
      • Table 3. Depictions on stone statues, artefacts and tattoos from the Okunev culture and Scythian period (see Figure 6)
      • Figure 7. The four principal phases of the occurrence of stone statues: 1–3, Bronze Age; 4–5, early Scythian period; 6-8, ancient Turkic period; 9–11, sculptured monuments of the ‘New Age’ (Table 4)
      • Table 4. The four principal phases of the occurrence of stone statues (see Figure 7)
  • Scientific analyses of some glass beads from Scythian
    • A. Meek, N. N. Nikolaev, St J. Simpson
      • Figure 2. Striped beads, c. 1st century BC–1st century AD, Znamenka (The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. nr. 2715/98) undergoing analysis: a. XRF, b. SEM-EDX
      • Figure 1. Objects discussed in this paper: a. blue and white ‘eye’ beads, 3rd century BC, Aymyrlyg (The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. nr. 2940/4/1-4); b. ‘amphora’-shaped beads, c. 1st century BC–1st century AD, Znamenka (The State Hermitage
      • Table 1. Summary of analytical results and interpretation
      • Figure 3. View of the site and environs of Znamenka (photograph: St J. Simpson, 1st June 2018)
      • Figure 4. Glass beads, 1st century BC–1st century AD, Znamenka (The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. nr. 2715/98): a–b, two types of blue-green beads with yellow stripes; c, black bead with colourless stripes; d, black bead with white stripes
  • Petroglyphs of the Scythian period in the Oglakhty mountains
    • E. Miklashevich
      • Figure 1. Complex of rock art sites in the Oglakhty mountains: 1–2, location of Oglakhty; 3, general view of the massif from the southeast; 4, Oglakhty, yellow dots showing rock art concentrations, orange dots showing locations of rock art of the Scythian
      • Figure 2. Rock art of the Scythian period from various sites in Oglakhty: 1–7, Sorok Zubjev; 8–9, Chyortov Log; 10, Kizan (1, 3, 7–8, 10, after Sovetova 2005; 2, 4‒6, 9, tracings: author)
      • Figure 3. Oglakhty Sorok Zubjev. A composition with images of horses, deer and a ‘Master of horses’. Rubbing on Mikalent paper
      • Figure 4. Scenes with ‘marked’ horses in a specific Oglakhty style, from various sites: 1–5, riverside cliffs (Oglakhty I after Sher et al. 1994); 6–8, Apkashev (after Chlenova 1981b); 9, 12, riverside cliffs (tracings: author); 10, Badalazhkin Log (Oglak
      • Figure 5. First attribution of ‘marked’ horses of Oglakhty: 1–3, drawings made by the Finnish expedition of 1887 (after Appelgren-Kivalo 1931); 4, fragments of original rock with the horse image in Abakan museum (photograph: L. Bove); 5–6, copper alloy c
      • Figure 6. Oglakhty, Abrashkin Log, multi-figure composition, recorded in 2015, and its fragment (tracing: author; photograph: L. Bove)
      • Figure 7. Oglakhty, Abrashkin Log, panel with a deer, recorded in 2015 (photograph: L. Bove; tracing: author)
      • Figure 8. Oglakhty, Abrashkin Log, composition with a lion-headed predator, recorded in 2015, and parallels for it: 1, Photograph: L. Bove; 2, tracing: author; 3, bronze object, chance find from the Minusinsk Basin, Beiskoje village (Museovirasto, Helsink
      • Figure 9. Oglakhty, Badalazhkin Log: compositions with ‘marked’ horses, recorded in 2016 (photograph: L. Bove; tracing: author)
      • Figure 10. Oglakhty riverside cliffs with reconstruction of a composition with ‘marked’ horses and a predator: 1–2, A.V. Adrianov’s squeeze, fragments (Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera), inv. nr. 2777/180; photograph: A. Solodeynikov);
      • Figure 11. Oglakhty riverside cliffs: depiction of an archer with bow and tiered arrowhead and a parallel for it: 1, rock with the image (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2564/2; photograph: E. Miklashevich); 2, tracing (after Sher et
  • Scythian and Sarmatian weapons with gold decoration
    • R. S. Minasyan
      • Figure 1. Cast (?) iron akinakes with gold overlay decoration on the blade and hilt: Arzhan-2, Grave 5, 7th century BC (National Museum of the Republic of Tuva; photograph: Vladimir Terebenin)
      • Figure 2. Dagger with gold hilt with gold overlay decoration on the blade. Arzhan-2, Grave 5, iron, gold, 7th century BC (National Museum of the Republic of Tuva; photograph: Vladimir Terebenin)
      • Figure 3. Arrowhead with overlaid decoration. Arzhan-2, Grave 5. Iron, gold, 7th century BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2917/25)
      • Figure 4. Details of the obverse and reverse sides of a sword blade with gold overlay decoration. Filippovka-1, mound 4, burial 2. Iron, gold, L 57.5 cm, late 5th–mid-4th centuries BC (drawings by Irina Rukavishnikova)
      • Figure 5. Cast iron (?) pommel of a dagger: chance find near Minusinsk, southern Siberia, 7th–6th centuries BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1669/1)
      • Figure 6. Chekans from the 7th–6th centuries BC: 1, iron with gold overlay decoration, Arzhan-2, Grave 5 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2917/19/1); 2, iron with gold decoration, chance find, Bashkiria, L 13 cm (Institute of History,
      • Figure 7. Hilt and cross-guard of a dagger. Iron, cast (?). L 26 cm, chance find, northern Khakassia (Shira Regional History Museum)
      • Figure 8. Akinakai with high-relief details on the hilts from the 7th–6th centuries BC: 1, cast bronze with griffins’ heads on the pommel and beasts of prey on the guard, chance find, Minusinsk Basin (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1
      • Figure 9. Forged iron chekan: Kelermes cemetery, Grave 29, 7th–6th centuries BC (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2736/104)
  • Gold of Peter the Great: Scythian goldsmithing techniques
    • A. Mongiatti, E. Korolkova
      • Figure 1. Achaemenid-style gold tubular torc (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/62; (a), photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; (b)–(c), radiographs showing the brighter regions where tubes and terminals overlap (white arrows), the s
      • Figure 3. (a) Top and (b) bottom views of the opening mechanism on the torc Si 1727 1/62, showing the brass rivet heads on either side, now locking the tubes in place and therefore preventing the torc from opening (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; 20x, (a)
      • Figure 2. (a), Seam on torc Si 1727 1/62, where the edges of the sheet curled into a tube meet in a butt-joint, (b), same horizontal butt-joint seam and vertical seam where the overlapping tubes join and have been soldered (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti,
      • Figure 4. (a) Seam where the halves composing the feline terminal have been soldered together and (b) feline features achieved by chasing. Note the turquoise inlay used to create the tiger’s eye (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; 20x, scale: 1 mm)
      • Figure 5. Empty inlay cells on the (a) feline head and (b) tail showing the dark red resin, potentially used as adhesive for securing the now-lost inlays to the base and walls of the cell (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; 20x, (a) scale: 1 mm, (b) scale: 0
      • Figure 6. Greco-Scythian tubular torc (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/145: (a), photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; (b) radiograph showing how whole components of the torc are hollow and how the two tubes sitting on top of each
      • Figure 7. (a) Seam on torc Si 1727 1/145, where the edges of the sheet curled into a tube overlap (brighter areas underneath the tubes on the radiographs, cf. Figure 6b) and were soldered together; (b) same horizontal burnished seam on the spiral-beaded t
      • Figure 8. Lion’s head on torc Si 1727 1/145 most likely produced by repoussé work of two separate halves and its face features achieved by chasing (photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti, 20x, scale: 1 mm)
      • Figure 9. Decorative beaded and spiral-beaded wires and narrow strips on torc Si 1727 1/145 hiding (a) the fastening system between the terminal and the tube and (b) the soldered join between the hinges and the tubes; note the reddish-pink colouration of
      • Figure 10. Fluted vessel (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/71): (a) © V. Terebenin 2017; (b) radiograph showing the vessel body made of one single raised sheet of gold and the hollow feline-shaped terminals (radiograph: D. O
      • Figure 11. (a) Abdomen and front legs of a hollow feline on vessel Si 1727 1/71 with the central seam visible underneath, where the halves shaped separately from gold sheet were soldered together (photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti, 20x, scale: 1 mm); (b) cl
      • Figure 12. (a) Rivets hammered flat in the flowered-shaped base of the feline handle on vessel Si 1727 1/71 to mechanically attach the latter to the body of the vessel; note how the rear paws of the feline have detached from the base and the gold sheet ha
      • Figure 13. Gold aigrette (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/131; (a) photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; (b) front and (c) side view radiographs revealing the sharpness of the designs and relative thinness of the gold sheet, as we
      • Figure 14. (a) Burnished join on the crest of the vulture on aigrette Si 1727 1/131, where the halves worked separately were soldered together to create the three-dimensional head (photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti; 20x, scale: 1 mm); (b) reverse side of the
      • Figure 16. Detail of the punching work on the (a) vulture’s head and crest, (b) its knee joint on aigrette Si 1727 1/131, to replicate the skin texture and of (b) the chased lines meant to replicate the feathers on the legs; note the triangular shape of t
      • Figure 15. Cloisonné cells on the vulture’s chest on aigrette Si 1727 1/131 made of small strips of gold bent to the desired shape and soldered to the base sheet: each would have originally contained an inlay of stone, glass or organic material, but they
      • Figure 17. (a) Front and (b) back of the vulture’s left wing on aigrette Si 1727 1/131: note the difference in depth of impression or rise between the long lines, most likely representing the rachis of the feather and created when the sheet was initially
      • Figure 18. Dark red resin visible (a) in the cloisonné cells of the vulture’s chest and (b) in the small loops on the vulture’s tail feathers’ rachis on aigrette Si 1727 1/131; note the different aspect of the two examples shown, which may be due to agein
      • Figure 19. Gold bridle fitting (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/29): (a) photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; (b) front and (c) back showing the low relief designs and decoration achieved using repoussé work and chasing; a large
      • Figure 20. (a) Front and (b) back of the hammered gold belt plaque (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/6), respectively having a smooth and shiny surface and a roughly hammered texture (a, photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; b, pho
      • Figure 21. Back of the (a) horse eye and (b) monster rear paws on plaque Si 1727 1/6, showing a close-up view of the hammering marks and the unusual rows of lightly punched hemispheres, apparently outlining areas in relief at the front (photomicrograph: A
      • Figure 23. Cast gold belt plaques (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg): (a) Si 1727 1/11; (b) Si 1727 1/3; (c) Si 1727 1/70; (d) Si 1727 1/157; (e) Si 1727 1/162; (f) Si 1727 1/15 (left) and Si 1727 1/242 (right) (photographs © V. Terebenin 2017)
      • Figure 22. Additional strip of gold soldered to the back of the sheet on plaque Si 1727 1/6, most likely to repair a damage in ancient times, either done at the time of manufacture or later during use (photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti; 20x, scale: 1 mm)
      • Figure 24. Dendritic structure on the surface forming upon cooling of the metal in the mould during a casting operation: front side of plaques (a) Si 1727 1/11 and (b) Si 1727 1/15 and (c) reverse side of Si 1727 1/242 (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; 20x
      • Figure 25. Cloth impressions on the reverse side of the cast belt plaques (a) Si 1727 1/3 (b) Si 1727 1/11, (c) Si 1727 1/15, (d) Si 1727 1/70, (e) Si 1727 1/157 and (f) Si 1727 1/162. Note the wide range of yarn thicknesses and types of weave, from a pla
      • Figure 26. Attachment loops at the back of cast belt plaques: (a) cast-in square hook on plaque Si 1727 1/70 and plaques Si 1727 1/3 and Si 1727 1/162 respectively (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; (a) 20x, scale: 1 mm, (b, c) 30x, scale: 0.5 mm)
      • Figure 28. Examples of inlay materials: (a) turquoise on plaque Si 1727 1/3; (b) carnelian on plaque Si 1727 1/157; a mixture of (c) black stones25 for the eyes and noses of men and animals, here the horse on the left, and of (d) blue glass and a possibl
      • Figure 27. Detail of the post-casting chasing work enhancing the three-dimensionality of the designs and accentuating their contours; (a) SEM BSE image of plaque Si 1727 1/70, showing the smoothly burnished man’s face and his finely chased hair and face f
      • Figure 30. Surface texture of plaque Si 1727 1/162, most likely the result of intentional hammering, possibly for planishing: details of (a) the seated man’s face and (b) the horse’s harness (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; 20x, scale: 1 mm)
      • Figure 29. Empty inlay cells on plaques (a) Si 1727 1/70 and (b) Si 1727 1/157 revealing the uneven surface texture of the gold to facilitate inlaying (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; (a) 20x, scale: 1 mm, (b) 50x, scale: 0.5 mm)
      • Figure 31. (a) Front and (b) back of the plaque in the shape of a coiled panther (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/88): (a) photograph © V. Terebenin 2017; (b) image: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 32. (a) View of the reverse side of the panther head on plaque Si 1727 1/88 showing small pieces of gold sheet soldered to the walls of cast-in holes to create inlay cells; (b) cloisonné cells on the panther’s tail made of small strips of gold cut
      • Figure 33. Coiled bracelet (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/55; photograph © V. Terebenin 2017)
      • Figure 34. Detail of the decoration on the terminals of bracelet Si 1727 1/55 with (a, b) as-cast dendritic surface structure in several areas and (c, d) grooves further chased after casting (photomicrographs: A. Mongiatti; (a, d) 20x, scale: 1 mm; (b) 5
      • Figure 35. Reverse sides of plaques (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg): (a) Si 1727 1/11 and (b) Si 1727 1/157, respectively showing thick, flat and smooth openwork edges, which match the traces of wear visible on the front of the former plaqu
  • Life and death in the Scythian world of southern Siberia:
    • E. Murphy, Y. Chistov
      • Figure 1. Map showing the location of Amyrlyg (drawing by Libby Mulqueeny)
      • Figure 2. Log house tomb VI. 6 from Aymyrlyg (photograph: courtesy of the Photographic Archive of the Institute for the History of Material Culture, St. Petersburg)
      • Figure 3. Cut-marks indicative of disarticulation at the right hip of an 18–35-year-old man from Aymyrlyg (VII. 5. Sk 4) (photograph: Eileen Murphy)
      • Figure 4. Anterior dislocation of the right glenohumeral joint and associated compression fracture of the humeral head in an elderly man (50+ years) from Aymyrlyg (XX. 8. Sk 2) (photograph: Eileen Murphy)
      • Figure 5. Battle-axe injuries in the skull of a 35-50-year-old man from Aymyrlyg (B.8 Sk 1). No evidence for healing was visible and it is probable the man died as a result of these blows (photograph: Eileen Murphy)
      • Figure 6. The head of the man from Barrow 2 at Pazyryk: two axe-pick holes are evident and the scalp has been cut off from the top of the forehead to the back of the neck (photograph: Yuri Chistov)
      • Figure 7. Notably enlarged left eye socket in an 18-35-year-old woman from Aymyrlyg (XXIII. 10. Sk 2) suggestive of the presence of a soft-tissue tumour possibly associated with the condition neurofibromatosis (photograph: Eileen Murphy)
  • Pazyryk horse masks of Gorny Altai
    • M. Ochir–Goryaeva
      • Figure 1. Map giving the relative location of sites of the Pazyryk culture with the western and eastern groups indicated by IV–VII and I–III respectively
      • Figure 2. The fifth Pazyryk barrow. Horse mask: 1, type 1, horse dress with horns; 2, type 2, horse dress with the top shaped in the form of the heads of wild and fantastic animals (after Rudenko 1953: table 71, 109)
      • Figure 3. First Tuekta kurgan horse mask 1: 1–2, wooden horns; 3, fragments of wooden horns (after Rudenko 1960: tables 68–69)
      • Figure 4. Berel’ kurgan 11: reconstruction of the horse mask type 1 (after Samashev 2007: fig. 4)
      • Figure 5. The first Pazyryk mound: reconstruction of the horse mask type 2 (after Soloviov 2003: fig. 22)
  • Mummies and mannequins from the Oglakhty cemetery in southern Siberia
    • S. V. Pankova
      • Figure 1. Map showing the location of the Oglakhty cemetery in the Minusinsk Basin, Altai-Sayan plateau, and other sites providing comparisons to the Oglakhty finds
      • Figure 2. View of the Oglakhty cemetery with its three main plots (photograph: author, 2018)
      • Figure 3. Oglakhty cemetery, Grave 4: 1, drawing based on a sketch by L.R. Kyzlasov in 1969 (А: upper level of the grave; B: lower level. 1, 3: mummies (1: male, 3: female); 2, 4: mannequins (2: mannequin 1, 4: mannequin 2); 2, photograph from L. R. Kyz
      • Figure 4. Mannequin 1: leather, grass, fur, fabric, cremated bones (?), L 161 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/78)
      • Figure 5. Man’s face under the mask and a seam. Digital illustration based on computer tomography (photograph adapted for publication by Paul Goodhead)
      • Figure 6. Gypsum mask: 1, in situ on the man’s head with a piece of silk on his mouth, H 20 cm. (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/2); 2, inner side of the mask: imprints of fabric around the man’s left eye (digital illustration ba
      • Figure 7. Fur outer coat of the male mummy, L 105 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/72)
      • Figure 8. Fur inner coat of the male mummy, L 105 cm: 1, front view; 2, detail, yoke fragment with decorative detail in the form of three-toed paw; 3, detail of collar with decorative applique (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/7
      • Figure 9. Fur bib of the male mummy, L 60 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/67)
      • Figure 11. Leather trousers of the male mummy with straps, L 77–86 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/69)
      • Figure 10. Leather and silk mitten from the right hand of the male mummy (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/76)
      • Figure 13. Tattoos on the male mummy from Grave 4 and their parallels: 1, tattoo, tracing by S. V. Pankova; 2, woollen tapestry from Grave 92LS II M3 at Sampula (after Schorta 2001); 3, details of funeral reliefs from China, 2nd century (after Finsterbus
      • Figure 12. Leather footwear of the male mummy, max L of sole 22 cm, 1, left; 2, right (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/74)
      • Figure 14. Fur coat of the female mummy, L 130 cm: 1, front; 2, detail of inner side of the coat; 3, detail of yoke with decorative details in the form of three-toed paw (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/77)
      • Figure 16. Headrests of the dead persons: 1, wooden block beneath the head of the male mummy, L 40 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/37); 2, cushion beneath a head of mannequin 2. Leather, grass, L 46 cm (The State Hermitage Mu
      • Figure 15. Skirt fragment of the female mummy, wool, leather, H 42, W 88 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/63)
      • Figure 17. Head of mannequin 1. Leather, grass, woollen fabric, tendon thread, silk. 1: face; 2: top head with silk plait decoration; 3: side view; 4: reverse side of the face (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/78)
      • Figure 18. Plait of mannequin 1 with fragment of a hairpin. Hair, wood. L 8.6 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/34; drawing by Nataliya Balaban)
      • Figure 19. Leather footwear fragments from the left foot of mannequin 1 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/78)
      • Figure 20. Mannequin 2. Leather, fur, grass. L 153 cm. 1: general view; 2: remains of the mannequin shoulders and neck and upper part of a fur coat; 3: applique on the collar; 4: pocket for the bone ash (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg)
      • Figure 21. Trousers of mannequin 2 with a detail (a loop), fur, L 80 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/68)
      • Figure 22. Imitation bow case edged with silk. Leather, silk, wood, feather. L 41.5 cm: 1, general view; 2–3, details of silk fragments (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/21)
      • Figure 23. Fragments of polychrome silk found next to one of the mannequins (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/58-61)
      • Table 1. Summary of the silks found in Tomb 4 at Oglakhty
      • Figure 24. Vessels from early Tashtyk graves and their parallels: 1, Oglakhty, Grave 4, pottery, L 25 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/7); 2, Gorkoye Ozero, Grave 13, pottery, H 16 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersbur
      • Figure 25. Gorytos with containers for arrows and silk edging. Grave 8, Niya cemetery, Xinjiang. Leather, silk (after Zhao and Yu eds 2000: 49, no. 15)
      • Figure 26. Depictions of animals with bent paws from the Minusinsk Basin and their analogies in monuments in Xinjiang, China. 1: carved figure on a birch-bark purse from the Chernoye Ozero II cemetery, Kurgan 5, Grave 9 (after Gotlib 2006); 2: figures pec
      • Figure 27. Parallels to materials from early Tashtyk cemeteries in the Sampula cemetery: 1, bone handle of a brush with carved pattern, L 9.5 cm, Grave 16, Komarkova cemetery (after Vadetskaya 1999: 37, fig. 19: 7); 2, felt bag with embroidery, Sampula 84
      • Figure 28. Wooden funerary bed, Sampula 92LS II M3 (after Xinjiang Weiwu’er Zizhiqu Bowuguan and Xinjiang Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 2001: 63, fig. 11)
      • Figure 29. Models of scabbards from the Oglakhty cemetery and their parallels: 1, wooden models. L 20–39 cm, Graves 2 and 7, Oglakhty (State Historical Museum, Moscow, photograph from the SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department, neg.III 9104); 2–4, leather sc
      • Figure 30. Mask on the head of the woman from Oglakhty, Grave 4 and the painting on the face of a woman from the Zhaghunluq cemetery, Grave 2, Xinjiang: 1, plaster mask, H 23.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2864/1); 2, painting
  • Textile finds from the central burials of the Arzhan-1 barrow in Tuva
    • S. V. Pankova, E. A. Mikolaychuk, Ly. S. Gavrilenko, L. S. Marsadolov
      • Figure 1. Arzhan-1: 1, map showing the location of the Arzhan-1 barrow in the Sayan-Altai plateau (Tuva), together with other sites mentioned in the paper; 2, plan of the wooden construction of the barrow (based on the materials of Mikhail Gryaznov, 1980)
      • Figure 2. Fragments of textile objects, Arzhan-1, Grave 1. Wool. 1: piece of a thick fabric bordered with braided tapes, 14 x 28 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/155); 2, weaving diagram of the fabric (after Plamenevskaya 1975
      • Figure 3. Replicating the braid of fragment: 1, Distribution of threads of two colours before braiding; 2, modern replica of the braid (photographs by C. James); 3, braid of fragment 1
      • Table 1. Technological characteristics of fabrics, braidings, threads and fibres
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Figure 4. Fragments of woollen textile from Arzhan-1, Grave 1: 1, fragment of an edged fabric with a graduated pattern and a strap, 13 x 9 cm; 2, detail; 3, fragment of the same fabric 8.5 х 11.8 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 28
      • Figure 5. Fragment of woollen fabric with ornamental border from Arzhan-1, Grave 2., 12.5 x 11 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/158): 1, general view; 2, detail; 3, reverse
      • Figure 6. Corner of woollen article of thin twill fabric with bordered sides and corner strap from Arzhan-1, Grave 4, fabric 20 х 13 cm; corner strap 5.5 х 1.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/161): 1, general view; 2, detail;
      • Figure 7. Fragment of article of two fragments of twill striped fabric stitched together with hemmed edges. Arzhan-1, Grave 4. Wool. 16 х 15.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/166): 1, general view; 2, detail; 3, diagram of co
      • Figure 8. Fragment of two pieces of thin twill woollen fabric stitched together from Arzhan-1, Grave 4, 33 х 20 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/156-1): 1, general view; 2, detail of a seam; 3, border of two sections of the b
      • Figure 9. Two fragments of weft-faced striped woollen fabric from Arzhan-1, Grave 4, 6 х 5.5, 5 х 4.5 cm (with border) (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/156-2): 1-2, general view of two fragments; 3, fragment 1 – colourful warp th
      • Figure 10. 1–4: fragment of weft-faced woollen fabric with a decorative darning from Arzhan-1, Grave 8, 60 х 35 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2878/170): general view and details; 5, fragment of a woollen article with a corner st
      • Figure 11. Graduated figure pattern on cloths depicted on late Assyrian wall paintings and reliefs: 1, Til Barsib palace, room XXIV: painting on a mudbrick wall (after Parrot 1961); 2–3, sculpture from the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (884–859 BC)
      • Figure 12. Graduated design and crotches on woollen trousers from the Tarim Basin cemeteries: 1, Zaghunluq, Grave 85QZM4; 2, Zaghunluq, Grave 98QZIM147; 3, Yanghai, Grave 21 (1-2, after Shorta et al. eds 2016; 3, after Beck et al. 2014)
      • Figure 13. Pipings and ornamental bands with warp ends doubled in textile objects from the Tarim Basin cemeteries: 1, Dzhumbulak Kum, D, Grave 10; 2, Zaghunluq 98 QZIM136; 3, Zaghunluq 96 QZIM65; 4, Dzhumbulak Kum, B, Grave 1; 5, Zaghunluq 85 QZM2; 6, Zag
      • Figure 14. Embroidery darning and lattice pattern on textile objects from Zaghunluq cemetery in the Tarim Basin: 1, coverlet from 96 QZIM4 and a detail with darning; 2, mended patch of a skirt from 96 QZIM64; 3, mended patch of a painted jacket and a det
      • Table 2. Dyes of the Arzhan textiles and their probable sources (asterisks designate the prevalent dye component)
      • Table 2. Continued
      • Table 2. Continued
      • Figure 15. Examples of mass-spectrograms of dyes in multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM) for Fragment 4 from the Arzhan-1 barrow (1 for the red dye: 1, alizarin; 2, purpurin. 2 for the violet/purple dye: 1, alizarin; 2, purpurin; 3, indigo; 4, chrysoph
  • The Sarmatian conquest of the northern Pontic region:
    • S. Polin
  • The royal Scythian Alexandropol kurgan based on new research data of 2004–2009
    • S. Polin, M. Daragan
      • Figure 1. Alexandropol kurgan: view from the northwest (drawing by I.N. Medvedeva, 1856)
      • Figure 2. Location of Alexandropol kurgan in the north Pontic region between Scythian royal kurgans of Chertomlyk, Solokha and Oguz
      • Figure 3. General excavation plan of the Alexandropol kurgan 2004–2009: 1, excavations in 2004; 2, excavations in 2005; 3, excavations in 2006; 4, excavations in 2007; 5, excavations in 2008; 6, excavations in 2009; 7, excavated parts of the ditch; 8, une
      • Figure 5. Ditch of the Alexandropol kurgan
      • Figure 4. Alexandropol kurgan on the eve of excavation in 2004-2009: tacheometer survey
      • Figure 6. Ditch of the Alexandropol kurgan near the western bridge
      • Figure 8. Finds of gold objects in funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan
      • Figure 7. Ditch of the Alexandropol kurgan in the section near western bridge
      • Figure 9. Finds of gold objects in funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan
      • Figure 11. Amphorae from the funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan
      • Figure 10. Amphorae from the funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan
      • Figure 12. Amphorae from the Alexandropol kurgan: 1–2, Heraclea Philoidnogo type; 3–4, Heraclea conical; 5–6, Ikos ‘red clay’; 7–8, Chersonesus Tauri; 9–11, Chian; 12–15, Thasos; 16, Sinope; 17, Mende
      • Table 1. Age at death of individuals found buried in the platform23
      • Figure 13. Amphorae from the Alexandropol kurgan: 1, Solokha I; 2–3, eastern Mediterranean, unknown centre; 4–5, Heraclea, ‘orange series’; 6–8, Heraclea, ‘brown series’; 9–10, Ikos-2 ‘brown clay’; 11–12, Murigiol type
      • Figure 16. Sacrificial burials in the funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan: burial 6
      • Figure 14. Sacrificial burials in the funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan: burial 1
      • Figure 15. Sacrificial burials in the funerary feast of the Alexandropol kurgan: burial 3
      • Figure 17. Arrowhead embedded in human bone from burial 6
      • Figure 18. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: 2009 excavations
      • Figure 19. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: items found during the pre-investigation of 2009
      • Figure 20. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: items found during the pre-investigation of 2009
      • Figure 21. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: items found during the pre-investigation of 2009
      • Figure 22. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: reconstruction of the burial
      • Figure 23. The Alexandropol kurgan in a drawing made by Prince AA. Sibirsky, dated 10 September 1852
      • Figure 24. Alexandropol kurgan. The map of the stone quarries, and their distance from the kurgan site, for the purposes of building of the retaining wall
      • Figure 26. Central tomb of the Chertomlyk kurgan: 1, axonometric view; 2, reconstruction
      • Figure 25. Central tomb of the Alexandropol kurgan: 1, axonometric view; 2, reconstruction
      • Figure 27. Distribution of kurgans in the Alexandropol kurgan micro-region
  • New investigations of Scythian kurgans and their periphery in the lower Dnieper region:
    • S. Polin, M. Daragan, K. Bondar
      • Figure 1. Scythian kurgans in the lower Dnieper region: 1, Yekaterinovka kurgan burial ground; 2, Novokhortitsa-1 kurgan; 3–10, Royal Scythian kurgans with funerary feasting remains found on their periphery
      • Figure 2. Novokhortitsa-1: bronze pole top from the near-kurgan funeral feast
      • Figure 3. Yekaterinovka burial ground: magnetic survey with two caesium magnetometers fixed on an aluminium frame and horizontally spaced 0.5 m apart (A); graph of single raw profile demonstrating technogenic noise in magnetic induction record (B); portio
      • Figure 4. Satellite image of Yeraterinovka burial ground: the locations of individual kurgans are traced and the magnetometry plots are marked as red polygons
      • Figure 5. Yekaterinovka burial ground: magnetic anomaly maps of plots 1–3
      • Figure 6. Yekaterinovka burial ground: maps of archaeological features excavated on geomagnetic survey plots 1–3
      • Figure 7. Yekaterinovka burial ground: burials 2 and 3 in kurgan 34, which correspond to northern anomaly inside the ring-shaped one of cluster 2; А, photograph; B, reconstruction, C, axonometric projection (drawing by Т.V. Menchinskaya)
      • Figure 8. Novokhortitsa-1: A, composite satellite image and magnetic anomaly map of kurgan 1, Raskopanaya Mogila and kurgan 2, Novokhortitsa-1: B, digital terrain model of the Novokhortitsa-1 kurgan
  • The formation of the early Scythian cultural complex of the Kelermes cemetery
    • T. V. Ryabkova
      • Figure 1. The northern part of the Kelermes cemetery with two parallel chains of mounds: mounds 27 (1 V), 28, 30, 31 form the western chain; mounds 15, 16, 23 (2 Sch.), 24 (3 Sch.?), 29 (4 Sch.?) represent the eastern chain (after Alekseev and Ryabkova 2
      • Figure 2. Kelermes terminals with ball-shaped openwork bells and their prototypes: 1, bronze terminals, H 10.2 сm, Tomb 1, Western Zhou cemetery, Shigushan, Baoji, China (after Shaanxi Sheng Kaogu Yanjiuyuan, Baoji Shi Wenwu Luyouju 2014: 71, cat. 9); 2,
      • Figure 3. Kelermes, mounds 1 and 2 V. Bridle decorations and analogies: 1, gold facings of bridle plaques, L 13.5 cm, Kelermes, mound 2V, horse 6 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2737/156,157); 2, 2а, gold facings of bridle plaques, D
      • Figure 4. Kelermes, mound 1 V. Artefacts from the complex and parallels: 1, bronze terminal, H 13.5 cm, Kelermes, mound 1V (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2737/123); 2, bone cheekpiece, L 6.6 cm. Kuban (?), chance find (The State Her
      • Figure 5. Kelermes, mound 1 V. Decorations and analogies: 1, glass beads, D 1.3–1.6 cm, Kelermes, mound 1V (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2737/99); 2, gold beads, L 0.3–0.5 cm, Kelermes, mound 1V (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Pet
      • Figure 6. Kelermes, mound 4 Sch. Artefacts from the complex and analogies: 1, gold facing of a bridle plaque, D 12.8 сm, Kelermes, mound 4 Sch (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Ку 1904-1/15,16); 2, fragmentary gold facing of a bridle p
      • Figure 7. Kelermes, mound 3 Sch. artefacts from the complex and analogies: 1, semi-cylindrical hollow gold and amber object of uncertain purpose but possibly part of a throne, L 19.2 cm, Kelermes, mound 3 Sch. (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg,
      • Figure 8. Kelermes, mound 24. Artefacts from the complex and analogies: 1, bone inlays from furniture (?), L 0.9–3.5, D 2.2–3 cm, Kelermes, mound 24 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 2739/13); 2, bone/horn rein junction boxes, D 2, H 2
  • The results of new scientific analyses of gold bracelets from Taksai-1 and an iron sword from Issyk
    • A. K. Satubaldin, S. A. Yarygin, A. Mongiatti, D. O’Flynn, J. Lang
      • Figure 1. Map showing the location of Taksai-1 and Issyk
      • Figure 3. Pair of gold bracelets from burial 4 at Filippovka-1, southern Urals, Russia, 6th–5th centuries BC (after Yablonsky 2013: 95, cat. 356)
      • Figure 2. Pair of gold bracelets from Taksai-1 burial mound (Tk2-931), western Kazakhstan, 6th–5th centuries BC (photograph © National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Nur-Sultan)
      • Figure 4. X-radiograph of gold bracelets Tk2-931. The radiograph shows strong X-ray absorption by the bracelets, blurred edges due to X-ray scatter, and a lack of visible internal or external detail, indicating that the bracelets are solid, and most likel
      • Figure 5. Close-up view of a casting defect (arrow) on a calf’s neck. The hole left after casting is partially covered by a transparent material applied over the inventory number written close to this area (scale bar: 0.5 mm, 30x; photomicrograph: A. Mon
      • Figure 6. PGE inclusions on the omega-shaped body; these two are relatively large and visible to the naked eye and are most likely responsible for the bright spot seen on the radiograph (Figure 4) (scale bar: 0.2 mm, 100x; photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 7. Top view of a feline’s head showing the designs chased in the metal after casting and the highly burnished surface; note the remains of a dark inlay in the grooves of the feline’s horns at the top of the image (scale bar: 1 mm, 20x; photomicrogr
      • Figure 8. Grooves on a feline’s neck on bracelet, most likely originally inlaid with a dark material similar to the one seen in Figs 10-11; these grooves were most likely initially carved in the wax and further accentuated by chasing the metal directly af
      • Figure 9. Light coloured stone in a triangular cell on the forehead of a calf (scale bar: 1 mm, 20x) (photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 10. Partially broken dark glassy-looking inlay in a cell on top of a calf’s head (scale bar: 0.5 mm, 50x; photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 11. Light grey inlay in two of the grooves of a feline’s horns; note the similar dark glassy-looking inlay to that shown in Figure 10 at the front of the image (scale bar: 0.5 mm, 50x; photomicrograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Table 1. Semi-quantitative XRF analysis on visually clean but non-abraded surface areas of both gold bracelets (normalised elemental concentrations in wt%)
      • Figure 12. Modern reconstruction of ‘the golden man’ from Issyk (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan)
      • Figure 13. Iron akinakes with gold decoration, L 48, W 7.7 cm, present weight 843.7 g (National Museum of Kazakhstan, inv. nr. ҚРҰМтк1-1842 (ГМЗ ОФ-896 ГМЗ СФ-82)
      • Figure 14. Gap (indicated by the arrow arrow) between what is most likely the scabbard and the iron blade inside it: the shiny areas correspond to where some adhesive or consolidation material has been applied (photograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 16. Strip of gold decoration in the centre of the broken tip of the sword/scabbard: note the red inlays and small teeth on either edge of the strip (photograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 15. Strip of chased/repoussé or stamped gold decoration in the centre of the blade/scabbard: note the red inlays still in their cells (photograph: A. Mongiatti)
      • Figure 17. The brighter regions on the radiograph correspond to gold decorations on the pommel and grip of the hilt and the blade/scabbard (digital X-radiograph: D. O’Flynn)
      • Figure 18. Tang of the akinakes, broken at the base of the blade (in line with the black arrow), which has most likely led to the dagger being broken in two, and the internal structure made of wires of the subsequently reconstructed hand guard (digital X
      • Figure 19. Decorative gold strips on either side of the blade/scabbard (digital X-radiograph: D. O’Flynn)
      • Figure 20. Decorative gold wire/s wound around the hilt (radiograph: D. O’Flynn)
      • Table 2. Semi-quantitative XRF analysis of visually clean but non-abraded surface areas of the gold decoration on the iron sword (normalised elemental concentrations in wt%)
  • Secrets of Achaemenid production of personal ornaments and vessels
    • E. A. Shablavina
      • Figure 1. A pair of gold bracelets with turquoise inlays from Taksai-1, burial mound 6, western Kazakhstan, made using the basma technique and soldering, 500–450 BC (National Museum of the Republic Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. TK2-931; photograph: E. Shab
      • Figure 2. The identical hollow terminals on these bracelets from Taksai-1 were made using the same matrix (National Museum of the Republic Kazakhstan, Astana, inv. nr. TK2-931; photograph: E. Shablavina)
      • Figure 3. Examination of the gold bracelets from Taksai-1 reveals further technological details: 1, longitudinal smoothing marks on the matrix; 2, cut marks of the gold sheet cover at the centre of the lion’s head and behind its horns; 3, a solder seam on
      • Figure 4. Gold aigrette from Peter the Great’s Siberian Collection: 1, obverse and reverse; 2–3, hollow griffin head with a longitudinal seam along the crest, 4th–3rd century BC (State Hermitage Museum, inv. nr. Si 1727 1/131; photographs: V. Terebenin /
      • Figure 5. Gold spiral torc with zoomorphic terminals and solder seams on the surface of the folded hollow hoops and at the junctions between the terminals and the hoops: Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, basma technique, soldered, 4th–3rd century BC
      • Figure 6. Details of the gold spiral torc with zoomorphic terminals: 1, individual figures of the terminals; 2, the straight longitudinal seam on the animal’s back of the folded hollow conical metal piece and the seam on the belly from cutting the cover
      • Figure 7. Gold spiral torc with winged lion terminals and solder seams on the surface of the folded hollow hoops and at the junctions of the terminals and hoops: Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, basma technique, soldered, 5th–4th century BC (State
      • Figure 8. Details of the gold spiral torc with winged lion terminals: 1, individual figures of the terminals; 2, the straight longitudinal seam on the animal’s belly back of the folded hollow conical metal piece and the seam along the back from cutting
      • Figure 9. Silver amphora from Filippovka-I, burial mound 4, Grave 4: 1, general view; 2, evidence for lost-wax casting of the zoomorphic handle; 3, soldered patch over the technological hole; 4, scraping at the sides of the horns. Cast and soldered, 5th–4
      • Figure 10. Pair of gold bracelets made by lost-wax casting, Filippovka-I, mound 4, Grave 4, 5th–4th century BC (Orenburg Regional Historical Museum, inv. nrs 19105–19106; photograph: E. Shablavina)
  • Jiang Yuan and north Chinese nomads
    • D. P. Shulga
  • Mysterious transformations of the Scythian cultures in the 6th and 3rd centuries BC
    • P. I. Shulga
  • Etched or bleached? Traded or copied?
    • St J. Simpson
      • Figure 1. Beck’s classification of bleached carnelian beads (after Beck 1933: pl. LXXI)
      • Figure 2. Early bleached carnelian beads (after Reade 1979: fig. 1)
      • Figure 3. Reconstructed appearance of the female from Grave 5 at Arzhan-2 (reconstruction drawing by D.V. Pozdnyakov)
      • Figure 4. Plan of the excavated graves at Arzhan-2, highlighting in red those containing bleached beads (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 18, fig. 22)
      • Figure 5. Plan of Grave 12 at Arzhan-2 (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 72, fig. 70)
      • Figure 6. Plan of Graves 13a–13b at Arzhan-2 (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 74, fig. 71)
      • Figure 7. View of the double burial in Grave 13a at Arzhan-2 (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 76, fig. 73)
      • Figure 8. View of the burial in Grave 13b at Arzhan-2 (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 81, fig. 76)
      • Figure 9. Detail of the beaded necklaces in Grave 13b at Arzhan-2 (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: 82, fig. 77)
      • Figure 10. Bleached and plain carnelian and turquoise beads worn by skeleton 2 in Grave 13a (after Chugunov, Parzinger and Nagler et al. 2010: pl. 91)
      • Figure 11. Bleached carnelian beads from Arzhan-2 (State Hermitage Museum, inv. nr. 2917-68; photograph by V. Terebenin, 2017)
      • Figure 12. Bleached carnelian beads from the art market (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1991,1008 collection)
      • Figure 13. Multiple views of bleached carnelian beads from the early 6th century BC tomb at Jubaji (after Shishegar 2015: col. pl. 10: 1–5)
      • Figure 14. Bleached carnelian beads from Khotan and Yotkan (The British Museum, inv. nrs MAS 152, 224, 191)
      • Figure 15. Plan of the main layers of Grave 3 at Tillya tepe , with enlarged details of the head and chest (after Sarianidi 1989: fig. 24)
      • Figure 16. Bleached carnelian beads from Grave 3 at Tillya tepe (after Sarianidi 1985: 244, no. 63)
      • Figure 17. Three different reconstructions of the dress of the person buried in Grave 3 at Tillya tepe (after Sarianidi 1989: fig. 25; Yatsenko 2001: pl. 9, after drawing by E. Kurkina; Rooijakkers 2011)
      • Figure 18. Bleached carnelian beads acquired in the Perm region of western Siberia and Crimea respectively (The British Museum, inv. nrs 1922,0601.292–293)
      • Figure 19. Bleached carnelian beads from the Merv cemetery (photograph: author)
      • Figure 20. Bleached bead worn with beads of mixed materials on a child’s wrist from the 1st–4th century pastoral nomad cemetery at Myntobe, southern Kazakhstan (photograph: Dr A. Podushkin)
  • In hoc signo vinces: the victory of the Scythians over the offspring of their slaves
    • N. Yu. Smirnov
      • Figure 1. Silver vessel from the barrow No 3 of the Chastye kurgany burial ground near Voronezh. Excavations of the priest S.E. Zverev and doctor of medicine A.I. Martynovich, 1911. Photo I.F. Chistyakov from the 1911 drawing by V. Yazykov (photographic d
  • Testing Herodotus: leather species identification of Scythian quivers
    • L. Spindler, M. Gleba, M. Daragan, M. Collins
      • Figure 1. A warrior with a quiver hanging over his left thigh from golden helmet found in Peredriyeva Mogila kurgan 2, near Zrubne village in the Donetsk region of Ukraine, dated 4th century BC (image: D. Klochko, © National Museum of the History of Ukrai
      • Figure 2. Stone stele of a standing male figure holding a drinking horn, with a scabbard and sword hanging from his belt and a gorytos with bow on the left side, from Plavni kurgan 2, Odessa region, dated to the end of the 5th-early 4th century BC (drawi
      • Figure 3. Gorytos from Soboleva Mogila in situ (photograph: Institute of Archaeology of Ukraine)
      • Table 1. Summary of burials which yielded materials analysed in this study
      • Table 1. Continued
      • Figure 4. Images of some of the quiver leather sampled, showing different levels of fragmentation and preservation; A) Bulgakovo kurgan 5 burial 2, B) Ilyinka kurgan 4, burial 3, quiver 2, C) Orehovo kurgan 3, burial 2, D) Vodoslavka kurgan 8, burial 4,
      • Figure 5. SEM images of the remaining surface of three leather fragments, top row at x30 and bottom row at x200, A) Ilyinka kurgan 4, burial 3, quiver 2, B) Vodoslavka kurgan 8, burial 4, C) Ilyinka kurgan 2, burial 4 (images: M. Gleba)
      • Figure 6. Pie chart displaying distribution of positive species identifications from the tested fragments
      • Table 2. Results of ZooMS species identification
      • Figure 7. Reconstruction of location of leather fragments from Ilyinka kurgan 4, burial 3 quiver with associated species identifications for fragments analysed (image: M. Daragan after A. Pleshivenko)
  • Saddles of the Hun-Sarmatian period
    • E. V. Stepanova
      • Figure 1. Scythian saddles of the 3rd century BC and modern reconstruction: 1, the saddle from Pazyryk kurgan 5, Altai (State Hermitage Museum, inv. nr. 1687/107); 2, the saddle from Pazyryk kurgan 3, Altay (State Hermitage Museum, inv. nr. 1685/358); 3,
      • Figure 2. The essential elements of the construction of saddle cushions on Roman (1) and Scythian (2) saddles: 1, leather covers of the saddle cushions of the Roman: A: Valkenburg, Netherlands, B: Castleford, England, C: Vechten, Netherlands, D: Carlisle,
      • Figure 3. The construction of Roman and Scythian saddles: 1, the reconstruction of the pattern of the Roman saddle; 2, reconstruction of the saddletree of the Roman saddle (1,2 – van Driel-Murray, Connolly and Duckham 2004: figs 3–4); 3, author’s reconstr
      • Figure 4. The depictions of Sarmatian and Parthian saddles of the Scythian type of the 2nd century BC–2nd century AD: 1–2, reliefs from Palmyra, Syria (author’s photograph); 3, terracotta 1st– 3rd century from Syria or Iraq, The British Museum, BM 135684;
      • Figure 5. Depictions of saddles of Scythian type, 3rd century BC–2nd century AD: 1, gold belt plaque, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great, late 3rd–2nd century BC (Simpson and Pankova eds 2017: cat. 22); 2, bronze belt plaques, 2nd century BC (Bunker e
      • Figure 6. The overlays for the semi-circular supports of the late Scythian saddles (1–3) and saddles of the 1st–6th centuries (4–10): 1, wood, Altai, Frolov collection (Rudenko 1960: fig. 136, к); 2–3, thick leather, Pazyryk kurgan 5 (Rudenko 1953: tables
      • Figure 7. Depictions of the Roman saddles of the 1st–2nd centuries: 1, Trajan’s Column, AD 107–117, Rome (Andreae 1973: 432); 2–4, Trajan’s Column; 5–6, reliefs of Trajan, Constantine’s Arch, Rome (Andreae 1973: 421–22); 7, medallion with scene of a boar
      • Figure 8. The overlays for the supports of the Roman saddles: 1, Newstead (Connolly and van Driel-Murray 1991: fig. 7); 2, Rottweil (Vujovic 1995: fig. 3); 3, Boljetin (Smorna) (Vujovic 1995: fig. 1)
      • Figure 9. The depiction of pad saddles of the Scythian type on Bosporan (1–3) and Rhine reliefs (4–6), 1st century, and replica of the Scythian saddle from Pazyryk kurgan 3 (7–9): 1, stela of Charitonis, son of Mocha (Davydova 1990: cat. 47); 2, uninscrib
      • Figure 10. Depictions of Sasanian saddles: 1, relief of Shapur I, Firuzabad (AD 240–272) (von Gall 1990: fig. 8); 2, silver dish of Shapur II (AD 309–379) (Trever and Lukonin 1987: fig. 8); 3, relief of Varahran IV (AD 388–399), Naqsh-e Rustam (von Gall 1
      • Figure 11. The front bows of the saddles of the 1st–first half of the 6th centuries: 1, wood, Mongolia, Noin-Ula, kurgan 6 (author’s drawing); 2, wood, Kyrgyzstan, Kenkol kurgan 2 (author’s drawing); 3, gold, Novogrigorievka burial IX (author’s drawing ba
      • Figure 12. The pad-saddle and the saddles of 3rd–5th centuries with semi-circular bows from eastern Asia: 1, leather and wool pad-saddle of Scythian type from Subashi-1, burial M10 (Liu Yunghua 2002: fig. 154); 2, wooden bows, Kenkol, kurgan 2 (author’s d
      • Figure 13. The saddle of the 4th century with П-shaped bows from Chaoyang: wooden bows (1, cantle, 3, pommel) and the gilded bronze overlays for the bows (2, 4–5); (1–5, Liaoning Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo and Chaoyang Shi Bowuguan 1997: col. figs 1–2,
      • Figure 14. The saddles of Silla (Korea) with П-shaped bows of the 5th to first half of the 6th century: 1–4, pottery vessels, Kŭmnyŏng-ch’ong, Kyŏngju (1–3, Arapova ed. 2010: cat. 26; 4, 5, gilded bronze overlays for the front bow, tomb of the ‘Sky Horse
      • Figure 15. Comparison of the details of Hun (1–8, 1bб, 12) and ancient Turkic saddles (9, 10а, 11): the overlays for the front part of the saddles from Dyurso (1–4), Vladimirskij, barrow 4 (5), Melitopol (6) and Novogrigorievka, burial IX и VIII (7–8); th
  • The wooden comb of the ‘golden lady’:
    • L. Summerer, Y. Lukpanova
      • Figure 1. Map showing the location of Taksai and the boundaries of the Achaemenid empire in 6th/5th century BC (adapted from Simpson and Pankova eds 2017: 159)
      • Figure 2. Plan of the Taksai-1 burial with the central tomb chamber and the secondary burials of the beheaded females, Π1 and Π2 (drawing: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 3. Plan of the burial showing the burial of the ‘golden lady’, Π 3, and the position of the box with the wooden comb, marked as 6 (drawing: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 4. In situ photograph of the burial of the ‘golden lady’ (photograph: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 6. Reconstruction of the ‘golden lady’ (photograph: Krym Altynbekov)
      • Figure 5. Detail of the burial with burnt human remains and gold jewellery (photograph: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 7. Findspot of the wooden comb within the hazelwood box (drawing: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 8. In situ photograph of the wooden comb (photograph: Yana Lukpanova)
      • Figure 9. Reconstruction of the wooden comb (reconstruction and drawing: Krym Altynbekov)
      • Figure 10. Drawing of the wooden comb (drawing: Timur Diyarov)
      • Figure 11. Heads of the figures of the battle scene (photographs and drawing: Krym Altynbekov and Oleg Belyalov)
      • Figure 12. Replica of the battle scene from the Tatarlı tomb (photograph: Hakan Kibar)
      • Figure 13. Detail of the replica of the battle scene from the Tatarlı tomb (photograph: Hakan Kibar)
      • Figure 14. Original painting with the chariot of the battle scene from the Tatarlı tomb (photograph: Roy Hessing)
      • Figure 15. The main gold chariot model from the Oxus Treasure (The British Museum, inv. nr. 123908; reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum)
      • Figure 16. The so-called ‘Darius seal’ (The British Museum, inv. nr. 89132; reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum)
  • Finds from the Noin-Ula kurgans at an exhibition in Berlin in 1929
    • N. A. Sutiagina, D. A. Kukina
      • Figure 1. Details from the canopy of a chariot from the Kondratiev kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O.759-46)
      • Figure 2. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 12/24 (Teploukhov’s) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-29)
      • Figure 4. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-31)
      • Figure 3. Fragments of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-30)
      • Figure 7. Fragments of ribbons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’), Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-16)
      • Figure 5. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-32)
      • Figure 8. Fragment of felt rug with silk edging from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’), Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-4)
      • Figure 6. Amber artefact from the Ballod kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-47)
      • Figure 9. Fragment of a silk sewn item with festoons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-6)
      • Figure 11. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery (tiger and dragon) from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-8)
      • Figure 10. Fragment of a silk sewn item with festoons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-20)
      • Figure 13. Sewn fragments of silk fabrics with embroidery from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-15)
      • Figure 14. Plait in a silk case with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-13)
      • Figure 12. Fragment of tulle with rhomboid ornament from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-9)
      • Figure 15. Artefact of patterned silk with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-26)
      • Figure 16. Fragment of silk fabric from a silk artefact with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-27)
      • Figure 18. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-34)
      • Figure 17. Fragment of decorated silk fabric from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-33)
      • Figure 20. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 25 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-38)
      • Figure 21. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 25 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-40)
      • Figure 19. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidered decoration from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-35)
      • Figure 22. Fragment of silk fabric from the Kondratiev kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-44)
      • Figure 23. Pieces of harness from kurgan 49 in the Sudzukte Pass. Excavations of Grigory Borovka in 1926 (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-42)
  • The Scythian empire: reassessing steppe power from western and eastern perspectives
    • T. Taylor, C. M. Havlicek, C. I. Beckwith
      • Figure 1. The Eurasian steppe zone from west to east (drawn by T. Taylor, reproduced from Masson and Taylor 1989)
  • Antennae of Scythian akinakai:
    • D. Topal
      • Figure 1. Antennae pommels on Scythian anthropomorphic sculpture (1–6) and mirrors (7–10): 1, Krasnodar Museum (Pregradnaya?); 2, Ternovka; 3, Pervomaysk; 4, Mederovo; 5, Lyubomirovka; 6, Kirovograd; 7, Podolye; 8, Basovka; 9, Chertomlyk; 10, Vishnopol
      • Figure 2. Găiceana type akinakai and related items (selected items): 1, Capaclia; 2, 17 Rassvet (gr. 29); 3, Cepari (b. 5); 4, Ulyap (b. 12, gr. 27); 5, Găiceana; 6, Yablonovka; 7, Nizy; 8, Ulyap (b.15, gr. 43); 9, Staroselye; 10, Gamarnya; 11, Kirovo; 1
      • Figure 3. Griffin daggers and swords (selected items): 1, Filippovka (b. 1); 2, Yadrino; 3, Sterlitamak; 4, Issyk; 5 Kayndu (b.2); 6, Dolgoderevenskoe; 7, Novodanilovka; 8, Slavyanka; 9, 10, 14, 18, 20 Minusa Basin; 11, Batoy; 12, Znamenka; 13, Bateni;
      • Figure 4. Distribution of ornithomorphic akinakai in Eurasia: 1, Găiceana type akinakai; 2, griffin daggers and swords (a, stray find, b, single burial, c, 2-3 burials, d, ceremonial item)
      • Figure 5. Grishchentsy type and stylised griffin daggers and swords (selected items): 1, Dobolii de Jos; 2, Ekaterinoslav; 3, Bel’sk hillfort; 4, Krasnyi Dubki; 5, Grishchentsy; 6, Energetik; 7, Argayash; 8, Afanasyevka; 9, Goznitsa; 10, northern China;
      • Figure 6. Distribution of stylised ornithomorphic akinakai in Eurasia: 1, Grishchentsy type akinakai; 2, stylised griffin daggers and swords (a, stray find, b, single burial, c, 2-3 burials, d, ceremonial item)
      • Figure 7. Solokha-type akinakai (selected items): 1, 5 Vyazivki, 2 Cheganda, 3 Akhrat, 4 Shnyaevo, 6 Dadanovka, 7 Talachevo, 8 Yablochnyi, 9 Kiev Museum, 10 Pereshchepino (b.3, gr. 2), 11 Mastyugino, 12 Nagornoe (b.5, gr. 1), 13 Sadovka, 14 Ufa, 15 Agat
      • Figure 8. Distribution of Solokha type akinakai: a, stray find; b, single burial; c, 2–3 burials; d, ceremonial item
      • Figure 9. Chronology of ornithomorphic Scythian akinakai
  • Settled rather than saddled Scythians: the easternmost Sakas
    • B. Waghmar
  • ‘Steppe Style’ in southeast Gansu province (China)
    • R. Wong
      • Figure 1. The Eurasian steppe and archaeological sites discussed in this paper (drawing by Raphael Wong)
      • Figure 3. Drawing of a side panel from the passenger box of a chariot from Tomb 13, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; wood with bronze plaques with openwork scrolls, bronze bosses, and beads, 70 x 130 cm (after Zhao 2010b: fig. 3)
      • Figure 2. Drawing of a side panel from the passenger box of a chariot from Tomb 16, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; wood with an iron grid inlaid with gold, gilt bronze bosses, silver sheets with openwork scrolls, and gold and silver
      • Figure 4. Drawing of a side panel from the passenger box of a chariot excavated from Tomb 16, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; wood with bronze plaques with openwork scrolls, and painted bird head and foliate border, 80 x 110 cm (aft
      • Figure 5. Drawing of a chariot wheel excavated from Tomb 3, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; wood with triangular silver sheets with openwork scrolls, and gold bird-head cutouts, diameter 140 cm (after Zhao 2010b: fig. 17)
      • Figure 6. Passenger box and wheel of a chariot with decorative plaques in situ excavated from Tomb 21, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; wood with bronze plaques, side panel: 42 x 95 cm, wheel: 110 cm (after Zaoqi Qin Wenhua Lianhe Kao
      • Figure 8. Limestone relief of a royal chariot in the Achaemenid Apadana, Persepolis, Iran, 6th–4th century BC (The Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago, P. 29464) (courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago)
      • Figure 7. Reconstruction of a chariot with iron bird figures on the draught pole excavated from Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; materials and dimensions unknown (photograph: Anthony Huan)
      • Figure 9. Part of a gypsum door-sill excavated from the North Palace, Room 1, Door C, Kuyunjik (Nineveh), Iraq, 645 BC; 246 x 305 cm (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1856,0909.57 / 124962) (reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum)
      • Figure 10a. Detail of the pile carpet in Figure 10
      • Figure 10. Pile carpet excavated from kurgan 5, Pazyryk, Russia, 4th–3rd century BC; wool, 200 x 189 cm
      • Figure 12. Part of the decoration from the passenger box of a chariot excavated from Tomb 3, Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; iron grid with gold inlay, gilt bronze bosses, and silver sheets, 64 x 30 cm (photograph: Anthony Huan)
      • Figure 11. Saddlecloth excavated in kurgan 5, Pazyryk, Russia, 4th–3rd century BC; felt, 223 x 66 cm (after Rudenko 1970: col. pl. 262)
      • Figure 12a. Details of the square sheets showing broken repoussé lines (photograph: Anthony Huan)
      • Figure 13. Wooden cheek piece with bird-head terminals excavated from kurgan 2, Pazyryk, Russia, 4th–3rd century BC (after Rudenko 1970: fig. 94B)
      • Figure 14. Cheek piece with bird-head terminals excavated from Majiayuan, Gansu province, China, 4th–3rd century BC; iron with gold inlay, 25.3 x 5 cm (after Gansu Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 2014: 208–209)
      • Figure 16. Carriage with an enclosed passenger box excavated from the tomb complex of the First Emperor of Qin, Lintong district, Shaanxi province, China, 3rd century BC; bronze with silk and mineral pigments, 104.2 x 328.4 cm (photograph: Raphael Wong)
      • Figure 16a. Interior of the passenger box in Figure 16 (photograph: Qin Shihuangdi Ling Bowuyuan 2015: fig. 199)
      • Figure 15. Drawing of the front panel of a chariot showing the textile design on the obverse (upper drawing) and reverse (lower drawing) excavated from the tomb complex of the First Emperor of Qin, Lintong district, Shaanxi province, China, 3rd century BC
      • Figure 17. Felt saddlecloth excavated from kurgan 5, Pazyryk, Russia, 4th–3rd century BC; 236 x 70 cm (after Rudenko 1970: col. pl. 160)
  • Conclusions
    • Figure 1. Barefoot bearded Scythian wearing an off-the-shoulder tunic and a flask slung at his side: a representation on a 4th century BC gilt-silver Greek amphora excavated by Ivan Zabelin at the Chertomlyk kurgan in 1863, H 70 cm (The State Hermitage Mu
      • Figure 2. Arab pastoral nomads in retreat: scene from a Late Assyrian relief in the North Palace of King Ashurbanipal at Kuyunjik, 645–640 BC, 127 x 195 cm (The British Museum, inv. nr. 1856,0909.31–32 / 124925, 124926)
      • Figure 3. Okunev stelae in the Krasnoyarsk Museum of Local Lore (photograph: St J. Simpson 2018)
      • Figure 5. Scene of a Black Sea Scythian hobbling his horse, shown on a gilt silver amphora from the Chertomlyk kurgan (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Dn 1863 1/166)
      • Figure 6. Graph showing horse colours based on DNA evidence from Arzhan-2
      • Figure 4. Scene of a Black Sea Scythian restraining his horse, shown on a gilt silver amphora from the Chertomlyk kurgan (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Dn 1863 1/166)
      • Figure 7. Horse mannequin in full dress, including a saddle with crupper and chest strap, a shabrack with Chinese silk embroidery, a ceremonial mask and decorated bridle, Pazyryk kurgan 5 (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nrs 1687/101, 17
      • Figure 8. Kyrgyz nomads moving camp (pictorial postcard, The British Museum, EPH-ME collection)
      • Figure 9. Reconstruction of the appearance of the leader buried in the central grave at Arzhan-2 (reconstruction by D.V. Pozdnyakov)
      • Figure 10. Reconstruction of the design used for the sewn-on appliqués worn by this individual (photograph: Andrey Bronnikov)
      • Figure 11. One of a pair of gold belt plaques from the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great showing a dead or dying male with his head resting on a female’s lap, his quiver/bowcase hanging from the tree behind, his horse tethered and a second individual
      • Figure 12. Black Sea Scythians represented by a Greek goldsmith in the northern Black Sea: decorated terminals of a 4th century BC torc showing Scythian riders, excavated at the Kul-Oba kurgan by Paul Dubrux in 1830, D 31.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum,
      • Figure 13. Black Sea Scythians wearing all-weather riding gear, depicted on a gold vase excavated by Paul Dubrux in the Kul-Oba kurgan in 1830, H 13 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. KO 11)
      • Figure 14. Conversation between a Kazakh herder and Mongolian camel man, Bayan-Olgii (photograph: Barbara Hind, summer 1994)
      • Figure 15. Conflict on the steppe: representation on a late 5th or early 4th century BC gold comb excavated in the Solokha kurgan by Nikolai Veselovsky in 1913, 12.6 x 10.2 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. 1913 1/1)
      • Figure 16. The bow was central: a representation on a 4th century BC gilt silver vase from kurgan 3 of the Chastye Kurgans at Podonye shows a Scythian man proffering one to a youth, H 10.5 cm (The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. nr. Do 1911
      • Figure 17. Different types of tents and yurts were used by Eurasian pastoral nomads although there is little evidence for their appearance in early periods (pictorial postcard, The British Museum, EPH-ME collection)
      • Figure 18. Tagar culture kurgans clustered in the mouth of a valley at Oglakhty, Republic of Khakassia (photograph: St J. Simpson, 2018)
      • Figure 20. Rock art visible on a slab used in the construction of the stone enclosure wall of the barrow at Barsuchiy Log (photograph: St J. Simpson, 2018)
      • Figure 19. Detail of rock art visible on an external slab used in the stone enclosure wall of the barrow at Barsuchiy Log (photograph: St J. Simpson, 2018)
  • The contributors
  • Bibliography
  • Index
  • Back cover

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