From Edessa to Urfa: the Fortification of the Citadel is the outcome of an archaeological research project focused on a specific monumental area in the city of Urfa: its citadel. Urfa is better known to the general reader by its ancient name, Edessa. Three seasons of fieldwork were carried out (2014-2016), concentrating on the study of the evidence preserved above ground and employing the methods of stratigraphic analysis to identify the building sequence of the citadel and to characterise the various building phases. Transformation of the relative sequence into absolute chronology depended primarily on inscriptions in situ, but also on typological elements (masonry type, decorative elements, specific architectural forms). Data from the written sources also contributed relevant information regarding the development of the fortification works and the establishment of an absolute sequence.

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright page
• Contents Page
• Acknowledgements
• Conventions
• Credits
• Abstract
• Özet
• Chapter 1
• Introduction
  • Introduction to the city, from Edessa to Urfa
    • Figure 1.1. General map of the area, with the location of Urfa
  • The citadel in previous studies
    • Figure 1.2. General map of Urfa, with the location of the citadel. © Google Earth
  • Medieval fortifications in the Near East: a personal itinerary from Shayzar to Urfa
    • Figure 1.3. Urfa city walls and citadel. After Niebuhr 1774-1778, 2: Pl. LI
    • Figure 1.4. General view of the citadel, from the N. Photo Tarducci
    • Figure 1.5. General view of the citadel, from the NE. Photo Tarducci
    • Figure 1.6. General view of the citadel, from the S. Photo Reali
    • Figure 1.7. The ditch on the eastern side, from the S
    • Figure 1.8. The present ascent to the gate of the citadel, from the NW
    • Figure 1.9. Modern circulation paths around the citadel, with Balıklıgöl park and the minaret of Maqām al-Khalīl on the right
  • The project: aim, methodology and the presentation of the results
• Part 1
• The fortification of the citadel: the written sources
  • Building and re-building: a summary of events
• Chapter 2
• Edessa and its fortifications in Byzantine times (6th-11th centuries)
  • The age of Justinian
  • The 7th century
  • The siege of Edessa of 944 and the translatio of the mandylion to Constantinople
  • The second half of the 10th century
  • The 11th century events
    • Figure 2.1. George Maniakes and the ‘Saracens’ fighting in Edessa: illumination in the chronicle of John Skylitzes (Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Vitr. 26-2, f. 205r – Imágen propiedad de la Biblioteca Nacional de España)
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 3
• The citadels and the city walls in the Syriac sources
  • The first millennium: of walls and floods
  • The second millennium: Turks and Crusaders
  • Bibliography
  • Primary sources
• Chapter 4
• Edessa in Armenian sources
  • Appendix: Descriptions of Edessa’s fortifications in Matthew’s Chronicle
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 5
• The citadel of al-Ruhā’ in the Arabic sources: an overview
  • The early Islamic period (7th-10th centuries)
  • The middle Islamic period (11th-14th centuries)
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 6
• The fortifications of Edessa in medieval Latin sources
  • Concerning the cities of the Persians in the Promised Land, especially Edessa or Roas, its conquest, and the war that the Christians are preparing
  • Appendix: ‘The cities of the Persians in the Promised Land, especially Edessa or Roas, its conquest, and the war that the Christians are preparing’ (1146)
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 7
• Ruhā in the Persian sources: an elusive presence
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 8
• The citadel of Urfa in the Ottoman written sources
  • Introduction
  • A note on terminology and sources
  • Before the Ottomans
  • In the 16th century
  • In the 17th century
  • In the 18th and 19th centuries
    • Table 1.
  • Bibliography
• Part 2
• The inscriptions from the citadel
• Chapter 9
• Notes on some Greek inscriptions from Edessa
  • Figure 9.1. Urfa, Harran Gate: Greek inscription, detail. From the S
    • Figure 9.3. Greek inscription no. 2
    • Figure 9.2. Eastern curtain, interior, from the W: location of Greek inscription no. 2
    • Figure 9.5. Greek inscription no. 3
    • Figure 9.4. Southern curtain, interior, from the N: location of Greek inscription no. 3
  • Bibliography
• Chapter 10
• The Arabic inscriptions of the citadel of al-Ruhā’ (Urfa/Şanlıurfa)
  • Abbasids
    • Figure 10.1. General map of the citadel, with location of the inscriptions discussed in Ch. 10
    • Figure 10.2. The eastern column, from the N
    • Figure 10.3. The Arabic inscription no. 1 carved on the eastern column
  • Mamluks
    • Figure 10.4. Southern curtain, general view of the eastern part of inscription no. 2, from the S
    • Figure 10.5. Southern curtain, general view of the western part of inscription no. 2, from the SE
  • Aq Qoyunlu
    • Figure 10.6. Inscription no. 2: detail of first part
    • Figure 10.7. Inscription no. 2: detail of central part
    • Figure 10.8. Inscription no. 2: detail of last part
    • Figure 10.9. Northern curtain, inscription no. 3. Photo E. Reali
    • Figure 10.11. Recognisable symbol inside the medallion (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
    • Figure 10.12. Tughra of Uzun Ḥasan (from Sözen 1981: frontispiece)
    • Figure 10.10. Inscription no. 4. Photo E. Reali
    • Figure 10.13. Tower 2, inscription no. 5. Photo E. Reali
    • 
    • Figure 10.14. Northern curtain, inscription no. 5 (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
    • Figure 10.15. Mārdīn, symbol/tughra of Uzun Ḥasan on the tower of the citadel (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
    • Figure 10.16. Mārdīn, symbol/tughra of Uzun Ḥasan on the mosque minaret (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
    • Table 1. Inscriptions of Abū’l-Naṣr Ḥasan in the Anatolian area.
  • Ottomans
    • Table 2. Main formulaic elements of inscriptions of Abū’l-Naṣr Ḥasan in the Anatolian area.
    • Figure 10.17. Northern curtain, inscription no. 6
    • Figure 10.18. Eastern curtain, block from inscription no. 6, final part
    • Figure 10.19. Photographic reconstruction of inscription no. 6 (R. Giunta)
    • Figure 10.21. Epigraphic cartouche no. 8, west of inscription no. 6
    • Figure 10.20. Tower 3, Inscription no. 7
    • Figure 10.22. Epigraphic band between two epigraphic cartouches. © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607, detail
  • Other
    • Figure 10.23. Southern curtain, epigraphic block no. 9, from the S
    • Figure 10.24. Epigraphic block no. 9. Photo L. Tarducci
    • Figure 10.25. Southern curtain, epigraphic block no. 10, reused upside down
    • Figure 10.26. Epigraphic block no. 10
  • Bibliography
    • Figure 10.27. Gate to the citadel, interior, from the E © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6606, detail
    • Table 3. Inscriptions of al-Ruhā’ in chronological order (those of the city in italics on grey background).
• Part 3
• The Fortification of the Citadel: the Material Evidence
• The archaeological analysis
  • The site
  • Field-work methodology
  • Presentation of the results
• Chapter 11
• The material evidence: Period 1 (post 3rd-6th centuries?)
  • Chronology
    • Figure 11.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 1
    • Figure 11.2. Western city wall, remains of gate IV, from the W
    • Figure 11.3. Western city wall, gate IV, detail of dressing
    • Figure 11.4. Southern city wall, remains west of Bab Harran, from the S
    • Figure 11.5. Southern city wall, tower west of Bab Harran, from the E
    • Figure 11.6. Western city wall, remains of tower north of Balıklıgöl park, from the S
    • Figure 11.7. Southern city wall, Harran gate, from the S
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 11.1)
    • Figure 11.8. Wall US 446 (A. 1), behind Tower 3 and entrance to the internal passage. From the S
    • Figure 11.9. Tower 1: remains of the western city wall (US 500, A. 2) abutted by later structures, from the N
    • Figure 11.10. Eastern wall, south corner (US 200, A. 3), with cuts in the rock. From the NE
    • Figure 11.11. Remains of structure US 243 (A. 4) on the northern front. From the W
    • Figure 11.12. Structure US 363 (A. 18), northern front. From the N
    • Figure 11.13. Eastern column with Syriac inscription (A. 17), from the N
    • Figure 11.14. Building N, general sketch plan with Stratigraphic Units
    • Figure 11.15. Building N, western wall (US 3000, Ph. 2, A. 11), from the W
    • Figure 11.16. Building N, western wall (US 3000, Ph. 2, A. 11), from the S
    • Figure 11.17. Tower 4, level 2, wall US 716 (Ph. 3, A. 12), from the E
    • Figure 11.18. Tower 4, level 2, wall US 716 (Ph. 3, A. 12), detail of internal face, from the W
    • Figure 11.19. Tower 4, level 1 (Ph. 4, A. 13), SE corner, facing E
    • © Şanılurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
    • Figure 11.20. Tower 4, level 1, US 718 (Ph. 4, A. 13), from the N. Photo C. Tavernari
    • Figure 11.21. Tower 4, level 1, stairs US 720 (Ph. 4, A. 13), from the NE. Photo C. Tavernari
• Chapter 12
• The material evidence: Period 2 (post 6th-11th centuries?)
  • Chronology
    • Figure 12.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 2
    • Figure 12.2. Tower L1 (left) and L2 (right) from the NW
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 12.1)
    • Figure 12.3. The southern front, with the ditch cut into the rock, from the W. The line indicates the hypothetical depth of ditch in Period 2
    • Figure 12.4 Turret 8, from the E, standing on the very edge of the vertical walls of the ditch
    • Figure 12.5. The ditch on the northern side, turning north toward the city. From the W
    • Figure 12.6. Turret 9 abutting later structures of Period 5, from the SE
    • Figure 12.7. Towers L1 and L2, general sketch plan with Stratigraphic Units
    • Figure 12.8. Tower L1, from the S
    • Figure 12.9. The northern ditch, from the NE
    • Figure 12.10. Northern ditch, detail
    • Figure 12.11. The pillar of Period 3 or 4
  • Spolia in Tower L1: a preliminary note
    • Figure 12.12. The counterscarp, south-eastern corner of the ditch, from the NW
    • Figure 12.13. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 1
    • Figure 12.15. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 3
    • Figure 12.17. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 5
    • Figure 12.18. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 6
    • Figure 12.14. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 2
    • Figure 12.16. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 4
• Chapter 13
• The material evidence: Period 3 (late 11th-12th centuries?)
  • Chronology
    • Figure 13.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 3
    • Figure 13.2. The lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, from the S
    • Figure 13.4. Lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, round tower, detail of masonry. From the N
    • Figure 13.3. Lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, round tower with Armenian inscription. From the E
    • Figure 13.5. Harran, citadel, south-western curtain. From the S
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 13.1)
    • Figure 13.6. Southern ditch with pillar, from the E
    • Figure 13.8. Southern front, Turret 12 (rebuilding Ph. 2, A. 23), from the S
    • Figure 13.7. Fragment of a wall behind the curtain (Ph. 2, A. 22), from the E
    • Figure 13.9. Space between L1 and L2: US 1003 (right, Ph. 2, A. 34) abutted by US 1011 (left, P. 4, Ph. 7, A. 46). From the S
    • Figure 13.10. Space between L1 and L2: US 1003, detail (Ph. 2, A. 34). From the S
    • Figure 13.11. Wall US 3004 (Ph. 2, A. 35). From the SE
• Chapter 14
• The material evidence: Period 4 (13th-14th centuries)
  • Figure 14.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 4
  • Chronology
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 14.1)
    • Figure 14.2. The rebuilding of the southern curtain of Period 4 (Ph. 2, A. 37-38) cuts off the earlier alignment and Tower 7. From the S
    • Figure 14.3. Southern curtain: the different alignment of the substructure (A. 37) and of the superstructure (A. 38). From the W
    • Figure 14.4. Southern curtain. Scarped wall US 16 (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the S
    • Figure 14.5. Southern curtain, arrow-loop US 12 (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the N-E
    • Figure 14.6. Southern curtain, interior: remains of brackets (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the N
    • Figure 14.7. Southern curtain: curtain building with inscription (Ph. 4, A. 39) and complex M behind (Ph. 3, A. 40). From the S. Photo E. Reali
    • Figure 14.8. Complex M, wall US 2021 (Ph. 4, A. 40), running N-S. From the S.
    • Figure 14.9. Complex M, wall US 2021 (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the W
    • Figure 14.10. Complex M, western boundary wall US 2009 (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the W
    • Figure 14.12. Complex M, SW corner of internal space, with corbel (Ph. 4, A. 40). From the NE
    • Figure 14.13. Complex M, level 2: P. 4 (?) and P. 5, A. 61. From the E
    • Figure 14.11. Complex M, sketch of southern wall of internal space. Level 1: P. 4, Ph. 4, A. 40. Level 2: P. 5?
    • Figure 14.14. The blind recess in the southern wall of the internal space (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the N
    • Figure 14.15. Sketch plan showing the rebuilding of the northern curtain (US 179) bonded to the internal wall US 180 (Ph. 4, A. 41)
    • Figure 14.16. The rebuilding of the northern curtain (US 179) bonded to the internal wall US 180 (Ph. 4, A. 41), from the NE
    • Figure 14.17. Internal wall US 180 (P. 4, Ph. 4, A. 41) and its rebuilding US 181 (P. 5, A. 60). From the E
    • Figure 14.18. Tower 4, Level 1, plan with stratigraphic units
    • Figure 14.20. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-western arrow-loop (US 732, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the S. Photo C. Tavernari
    • Figure 14.21. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-eastern arrow-loop (US 730, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the SE
    • Figure 14.19. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-eastern casemate (US 727, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the S.
    • © Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
    • Figure 14.22. Tower 4, interior, Level 1: the vaulting system before restoration (Ph. 5, A. 42), from the N. © Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
    • Figure 14.23. Curtain US 303 (Ph. 5, A. 43), from the N
    • Figure 14.24. Curtain US 303 and arrow-loop US 356 (Ph. 5, A. 43), from the NE
    • Figure 14.25. Foundation of curtain US 223 (Ph. 5, A. 44), from the NW
    • Figure 14.26. Tower 3, north-eastern corner, before recent collapse. From Hellenkemper 1976, Pl. 5B
    • Figure 14.27. Space between L1 and L2, wall US 1011 (Ph. 7, A. 46). From the SW
    • Figure 14.28. Space between L1 and L2, vault US 1013 (Ph. 7, A. 46). From the W
    • Figure 14.29. Curtain US 3010 (Ph. 8, A. 47), from the S
    • Figure 14.30. Vault US 3012 (Ph. 8, A. 47), from the E
    • Figure 14.31. Harran, citadel, south-western curtain, from the S
    • Figure 14.32. Rum Kale, western front, Tower 3, from the N
• Chapter 15
• The material evidence: Period 5 (15th century)
  • Chronology
    • Figure 15.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 5
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 15.1)
    • Figure 15.2. Eastern front (US 31 and 122, Ph. 2, A. 49), the irregularity of the courses
    • Figure 15.3. Eastern front (Ph. 2, A. 49), arrow-loop US 118, interior
    • Figure 15.4. Eastern front, interior (Ph. 2, A. 49), the niche of arrow-loop US 112
    • Figure 15.5. Eastern front (Ph. 2, A. 49), detail of US 30
    • Figure 15.6. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), general view of curtain US 555, with inscription
    • Figure 15.7. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), general view after restoration.
    • © Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü (photo Cihat Kürkçüoğlu)
    • Figure 15.8. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), US 567
    • Figure 15.9. Northern front, Turret 5 (Ph. 4, A. 54), detail of the lower courses
    • Figure 15.10. Northern front, Turret 5 (Ph. 4, A. 54), with arrow-loop US 221
    • Figure 15.11. Northern front, Tower 1 (Ph. 4, A. 58), arrow-loop US 518, interior
    • Figure 15.12. Northern front, Tower 1, from the N (Ph. 5, A. 65; on the right a portion of Ph. 4, A. 58)
    • Figure 15.13. Northern front, Tower 2, from the N (Ph. 5, A. 66-67), with inscription
    • Figure 15.14. Northern front, western part, from the NW (G.A. 4)
    • Figure 15.15. Internal area, A. 60, detail of US 181, from the E
• Chapter 16
• The material evidence: Period 6 (16th century)
  • Figure 16.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Periods 6 and 7
  • Chronology
    • Figure 16.2. Northern curtain west of present gate to the citadel, from the N
    • © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607
    • 16.3. Gate to the citadel, interior, from the E
    • © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6606
    • Figure 16.4. Tower 4, north-eastern corner: sculpted elements (Ph. 2, A. 68). From the NE
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 16.1)
    • Figure 16.5. Entrance system, with Tower 4, from the N
    • Figure 16.6. Gate and Tower 4. From the W. Photo L. Tarducci
    • Figure 16.7. Tower 4, from the NE
    • Figure 16.8. Tower 4, brackets for machicolation box. From the W
    • Figure 16.9. Northern curtain west of present gate to the citadel, from the N
    • © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607, detail
    • Figure 16.10. Decorative element in US 314 (Ph. 2, A. 70), from the NE
    • Figure 16.11. Decorative elements in US 330 (Ph. 2, A. 70), from the N
• Chapter 17
• The material evidence: Period 7 (17th century)
  • The archaeological analysis (Figure 16.1)
    • Figure 17.1. Tower 3 in 1919, from the NW.
    • © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6605, detail
    • Figure 17.2. Tower 3, rebuilt, from the NW
    • Figure 17.3. Tower 3 with inscription, from the N
• Chapter 18
• The material evidence: Periods 8 (18th-19th centuries) and 9 (post Ottoman to the present)
  • Period 8 (18th-19th centuries)
  • Period 9 (post-Ottoman-present)
    • Figure 18.1. Gate and access system in 1919.
    • © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6609, detail
• Chapter 19
• The masonry typology
  • Figure 19.1. General view of the quarry on the hill south of the citadel. From the W
    • Figure 19.2. The quarry on the hill south of the citadel, from the W. Detail
    • Figure 19.3. The quarry on the hill south of the citadel. Detail
    • Table 19.1. List of masonry types
    • Figure 19.4. Type 4, US 1001, from the S
    • Figure 19.5. Type 4, US 1001, detail
    • Figure 19.6. Type 4, US 1001, core, from the S
    • Figure 19.7. Type 5, Turret 8, US 1, from the S
    • Figure 19.8. Type 5, Turret 8, US 1, detail
    • Figure 19.9. Type 21, US 344, from the N
    • Figure 19.11. Type 21, US 416, from the NW
    • Figure 19.10. Type 21, US 344, detail
    • Figure 19.12. Type 6, US 245, from the W
    • Figure 19.14. Type 6, US 65, from the S
    • Figure 19.13. Type 6, US 245, detail
    • Figure 19.15. Type 6, US 65, detail with mason’s mark
    • Figure 19.16. Type 2, US 303, from the NW
    • Figure 19.17. Type 2, US 303, detail
    • Figure 19.18. Type 22, US 406, from the N
    • Figure 19.19. Type 3, US 117, from the E
    • Figure 19.20. Type 3, US 30
    • Figure 19.22. Type 16, US 549, from the N
    • Figure 19.21. Type 3, US 30, detail
    • Figure 19.23. Type 16, US 549, detail
    • Figure 19.24. Type 19, US 337, from the N
    • Figure 19.25. Type 19, US 337, detail
    • Figure 19.26. Type 19, US 337, detail
    • Figure 19.27. Type 10, US 127, from the E
    • Figure 19.28. Type 10, US 127, detail
    • Figure 19.29. Type 10, US 127, detail
    • Figure 19.30. Type 10, US 127, detail
    • Figure 19.31. Type 1, US 5, from the S
    • Figure 19.32. Type 1, US 415, from the NE
    • Figure 19.33. Type 1, US 415, detail
    • Figure 19.34. Type 15, US 420, from the W
    • Figure 19.36. Type 17, US 410, detail
    • Figure 19.35. Type 17, US 410, from the E
• Chapter 20
• Conclusions
  • The constructional history: a summary
  • Military architecture, building techniques and beyond
• Plates
• Appendix
• Bibliography
• Back cover